Language: artificial

Programming languages Artificial (or formal) languages designed to let people specify algorithms and describe data structures, usually in a notation that is independent of the underlying target machine. 

In chemistry, chemical structures have to be represented in machine-readable form by scientific, artificial languages (see Figure 2-2). Four basic approaches are introduced in the following sections trivial nomenclature systematic nomenclature chemical notation and mathematical notation of chemical structures. 

Baader F. A formal definition for expressive power of knowledge representation languages. In Proceedings of the 9th European Conference on Artificial Intelligence, ECAI-90, Stockholm, Sweden, 1990, p. 53-58. 

In NMR spectroscopy, however, the chemical shift measurement we make takes place in an environment of our making that is both entirely artificial and arbitrary (i.e., the magnet ). For this reason, it is essential to reference our measurements to a known standard so that we can all speak the same language, no matter what make or frequency of spectrometer we use. 

Finally, reductionism is closely tied to the so-called syntactic approach to theories, an approach which treats theories as axiomatic systems expressed in natural or artificial languages. Indeed, closely tied may be an understatement, since deduction is a syntactic affair, and is a necessary component of reduction. Once philosophers of science began to take the semantic approach to theories seriously, the very possibility of reduction became moot. For the semantic approach treats theories as families of models, and models as implicit definitions, about which the only empirical question is whether they are applicable to phenomena. For reduction to be obtained among models semantically characterized requires an entirely different conception of reduction, and whether such a conception would capture anything of interest about inter-theoretical relations is questionable. 

Pereira, F.C.N., D.H.D. Warren, Definite Clause Grammars for Language Analysis - a Survey of the Formalism and a Comparison with Augmented Transition Networks , Artificial Intelligence, 13, (1980), pp. 231-278. 

The development of expert systems need not be costly. There are several expert system shells commercially available, and an expert in artificial intelligence (AI) is no longer needed to program them. Simple IF-THEN rules can easily be programmed in more commonly used languages like FORTRAN and BASIC. In fact, the McDonnell Aircraft expert system referred to earilier was programmed in FORTRAN. Cost depends on the number of rules and... 

Now, I feel I have dwelt too long on the subject of "umami , but the word "umami" in Japanese language sometimes means "sweetness". As to the sweeteners, it is no wonder that such a great deal of work has been done on new sweeteners of natural and artificial origin. Until now, such work has been a kind of hit and miss business. Therefore, the last half of the day was devoted to understanding some of the structural features of molecules that determine their taste properties. Based on the advanced stereo-chemical studies on a large number of sweet and bitter compounds by Dr. Ariyoshi, Dr. Belitz and Dr. Ney, our understanding of the molecular properties of certain taste compounds has advanced markedly. 

Dr. Valian s research interests include first and second language acquisition, artificial language learning, and human sex differences. She is a member of the American Psychological Association, the American Psychological Society, and the Society for Research in Child Development. She serves as a member of the editorial board for Cognition. She has written and lectured widely and has received considerable acclaim for her 1998 book Why So Slow The Advancement of Women. 

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