Machine-readability

In chemistry, chemical structures have to be represented in machine-readable form by scientific, artificial languages (see Figure 2-2). Four basic approaches are introduced in the following sections trivial nomenclature systematic nomenclature chemical notation and mathematical notation of chemical structures. 

GORE. The CORE Electronic Chemistry Library is a joint project of Cornell University, OCLC (On-line Computer Library Center), Bell Communications Research (Bellcore), and the American Chemical Society. The CORE database will contain the full text of American Chemical Society Journals from 1980, associated information from Chemical Abstracts Service, and selected reference texts. It will provide machine-readable text that can be searched and displayed, graphical representations of equations and figures, and full-page document images. The project will examine the performance obtained by the use of a traditional printed index as compared with a hypertext system (SUPERBOOK) and a document retrieval system (Pixlook) (6,116). 

Four main approaches have been suggested for the representation of chemical structures in machine-readable form fragment codes, systematic nomenclature, linear notations, and connection tables. 

An electronic record must consist of two components a human-readable section and a machine-readable (computer) section. The content of the human-readable section will include information about the creation and any additional processing of the data. 

The acquisition software sets up the right hardware parameters to begin an acquisition and controls the data flow during the acquisition. It can be controlled in two different ways, the routine way and the research based way with full access to all hardware based parameters. The routine way of starting an experiment requires the existence of a high level method, which is mainly a software module that translates high level, easily understandable parameters into low level, machine readable parameters. 

Case Report Tabulation Data Definition Specification (Define.xml). Define.xml is the upcoming replacement for the data definition file (define.pdf) sent to the FDA with electronic submissions. Define.xml is based on the CDISC ODM model and is intended to provide a machine-readable version of define.pdf. Because define.xml is machine readable, the metadata about the submission data sets can be easily read by computer applications. This allows the FDA to work more easily with the data submitted to it. 

Samuelson, P. (1984), CONTU revisited the case against copyright protection for computer programs in machine readable form , Duke Law Journal, pp. 663-769. 

A bar code is a computer or machine-readable representation of information. It is usually made of dark ink on a light background to create high and low reflectance which is converted to Is and Os, when read by the computer program. A similar result may be achieved by patterns of dots, concentric circles, or text codes hidden within images. A bar code containing stored data in the widths and spacings of printed parallel lines or other patterns as... 

When such a TIC is established, one will find that some unusual benefits accme. One now has immediate and uninterrupted access to libraries of valuable and comprehensive scientific data. This access is free of on-line constraints and designed to be user friendly, with readily retrievable information available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. The retrieved information can also usually be manipulated in electronic form, so one can use it in reports and/or store it in machine-readable form as ASCII files. 

Machine-readable added to currency to tell how long it has been in circulation, and when it needs to be retired... 

Machine-readable strips on polymer currency for use in vending machines... 

It makes the documents both machine-readable so that they are easily parsed and processed electronically and allows the exchange of information between computer systems. It also makes them human-readable so that they can be easily retrieved and used by the people who need them. 

The Council encourages industry to employ machine-readable coding (e.g. bar coding) in its labeling of drug products. The Council recognizes the importance of standardization of these codes for this use. 

Fig. 9.6 Human versus machine-readable chemical structure representations. Names based on the depicted structures were interpreted using ACDName [22]. The cross up/down wedge error (middle) causes errors in assigning the absolute chirality.

Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations ( 1 to 5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS. 

Those involving selective absorption of light ° Photographic sensitisers (see section 4.5.3) o Security and machine readable data... 

Records are retained for an appropriate length of time (generally 10 years or two generations over treatment duration) in machine-readable form. This is perhaps the most technologically controversial provision. While it is theoretically possible to retain machine-readable records (ASCII, e.g.—the alphanumeric code—is several decades old), the hkelihood that a formatted electronic document will be physically readable several years later is remote. Consider, for example, the 514-in. floppy disks of 10 years ago and the fact that new sizes of CDs are currently being introduced. 

The output of the lock-in amplifier is input to a sample-and-hold amplifier or directly to the analog-to-digital converter. This signal is converted to a digital and thus machine-readable form. 

Once the data have been recorded in machine-readable form, they may be further processed to improve the signal-to-noise characteristics of the record. Note, however, that an improvement of the signal-to-noise ratio will most often be at the expense of resolution, and thus smoothing the data record... 

The use of authentication checks at physical access points in order to establish that the machine-readable codes on tokens and PINs are assigned to the same individual. 

Until the late 1970s, the Wiswesser Line Notation (WLN) was the only widely recognized format in which to code chemical structures in a computer-readable linear format. It was invented by William J. Wiswesser (1952), and his work was recognized and honored with the Skolnik Award for outstanding contributions to and achievements in the theory and practice of chemical information science by the American Chemical Society in 1980. The WLN was quickly adopted by major chemical companies to store and retrieve machine-readable, 3D-chemical structure information in a 2D, linear array, and is still in use today. 

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