Initial Medical Applications

During the second half of the twentieth century, HA was discovered in different tissues and liquids of vertebrae animals as well as humans. It was also found to have clinical applications, mostly for eye surgery, treatment of joint diseases and aesthetic medicine. The first actual use 

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Higashi S, Shimizu M, Nakashima T, Iwata K, Uchiyama F, T ateno S, Setoguchi T. 1995. Arterial-injection chemotherapy for hepatocellular-carcinoma using monodispersed poppy-seed oil microdroplets containing fine aqueous vesicles of epirubicin—Initial medical application of a membrane-emulsification technique. Cancer 75 1245-1254. 

The laminography method was developed initially for medical applications as a non-computer layer-by-layer visualization of the human body [1,2]. In this case an inclined initial X-ray beam projects an image of a specific layer of the object to the detector surface with defocusing of the other layers during a synchronous rotation of the object and the detector (Fig. 1). 

Today their initial work on the preparation of suitable asymmetric membranes has touched nearly every aspect of life including uses in water purification, food technology, biological separations, waste treatment, medical applications, and bioengineering, and this appears to be just the beginning. 

Ephedrine is the main alkaloid produced in the roots of Ephedra sinica, preparations of which have found medical application in China for at least 5000 years. It was first purified from its natural source in 1887, and its chemical synthesis was achieved in 1927. It was initially used in cardiovascular medicine, but subsequently found wider application in the treatment of mild hayfever and asthma. It is also used as a nasal decongestant and cough suppressant. 

The most important and most studied applications of enzyme biosensors are to detect and monitor blood glucose, followed by lactate, because of the medical applications of such sensors. Thus, by initially detailing the development of glucose biosensors we can better understand and trace the general development of enzyme biosensors containing polymeric electron transfer systems. 

Biodegradable materials were initially used in medical applications such as sutures, prostheses, controlled drug-release systems, and vascular grafts. These applications are enabled by their biocompatibility, their ability to be absorbed by the body, and because of their mechanical properties appropriate for such applications [6]. 

Table 23.1 lists a number of companies actively developing and/or marketing chemical or biosensors. Applications for these sensors are diverse, from medical applications to environmental monitoring and food quality determinations. This diversity illustrates the generic nature common to most chemical and biosensors. Once the basic transduction and electronic components of the sensor have been developed and manufactured, the application of the sensor to measurements for a wide range of analytes is only limited by the specificity and selectivity of its active chemicaWjiological surface. Thus while the initial development of chemical and biosensors requires high-risk investment, successful development of the basic sensor can result in a family of products applicable over broad markets. 

The initial evaluations from the FDA listed PCMX as a Category III product, meaning that there were not enough data to recognize it as both safe and effective as a topical antimicrobial. Because of this, it has not been extensively used in products for medical applications, such as surgical hand scrubs, preoperative skin preparations, or healthcare personnel handwash formulations. 

PU and silicone rubber are biocompatible materials which are commonly used in a variety of medical applications [53], e.g., as a raw material for central venous catheters and tracheotomy tubes. Although these materials are biocompatible, the side effects which occur during clinical use include inflammation, infection and biofilm formation and growth. This in turn initiates the degradation of the material, e.g., previous studies have proven that the degradation of PU catheters is caused by either oxidation or hydrolysis of the material [54]. The degradation of silicone rubber is a hydrolysis phenomenon [55], which could be catalysed by an acidic environment. 

Initial olefin applications will likely focus on the agricultural/industrial, packaging, medical, wire cable, automotive, large appliance, and housewares/toys markets, but additional uses are expected to develop as the technology proliferates. 

Pol5miers of 1-vinyl-1,2,4-triazole are nontoxic, have a high hydrophiUc-ity, and a high hydrolysis stabiUty. Possible applications are in the food industry and medicine. Copolymers with of 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) are used in biological and medical applications. They can be prepared in ethanol and AA -dimethylformamide (DMF) in the presence of 2,2 -azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN) as the initiator. 

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