Individuality strengths from being different

To measure the strength of the forces exerted on particles, various analytical techniques have been developed [6, 7]. Unfortunately, since most of these techniques are based on hydrodynamics, assumption of the potential profiles is required and the viscosities of the fiuid and the particle sizes must be precisely determined in separate experiments, for example, using the viscous flow technique [8,9] and power spectrum analysis of position fluctuation [10]. Furthermore, these methods provide information on ensemble averages for a mass of many particles. The sizes, shapes, and physical and chemical properties of individual particles may be different from each other, which will result in a variety of force strengths. Thus, single-particle... 

The ionic concentration gradients in the transition layer constitute the reason for development of the diffusion component E of electric field strength (the component arising from the difference in diffusion or mobihties between the individual ions). The diffusion potential between the solutions, 9 = - / can be calculated... 

The individual-ion activity coefficients for the free ions were based on the Macinnis (18) convention, which defines the activity of Cl to be equal to the mean activity coefficient of KCl in a KCl solution of equivalent ionic strength. From this starting point, individual-ion activity coefficients for the free ions of other elements were derived from single-salt solutions. The method of Millero and Schreiber (14) was used to calculate the individual-ion, activity-coefficient parameters (Equation 5) from the parameters given by Pitzer (19). However, several different sets of salts could be used to derive the individual-ion activity coefficient for a free ion. For example, the individual-ion activity coefficient for OH could be calculated using mean activity-coefficient data for KOH and KCl, or from CsOH, CsCl, and KCl, and so forth. 

Ayoub et al. [1987] developed a quantitative stress-strain index, called the job severity index (lSl),from empirical task analysis and epidemiologic data for manual materials handling tasks. This index computes the ratio of job task physical demands to person physical capacities from several interacting variables. The appHcation of the JSl is also detailed in Ayoub and Mital [1991]. Also, Kondraske [1995] defines a quantitative measure of stress that can be applied to individual performance resources. In this measure, defined as the ratio of resource utilization to resource availability, an adverse effect maybe noted when the stress level exceeds a threshold, which may be different for different types of performance resources (e.g., strength, range of motion, etc.). 

Whilst the failure probability of an individual strength test is unknown, it can be estimated by using an estimation function. Many proposals exist for appropriate estimation functions, but the difference between them is - from a practical point of view - not very relevant. Typically, for large sample sizes the differences are very small, while for small sample sizes the scatter of data is larger than the difference between the different estimation fimctions. In standards, for example, in EN 843-5 [85], the function... 

Once the decision to act has been made, the remaining limitations on the human system are those of its capacity to act, e.g. its speed, strength, versatility. Humans differ from machine systems in that their actions are not carbon copies of each other, even when the individual is carrying out the same task again and again. The objective may be unchanging, but the system adapts itself to small changes in body position, etc. to carry out a... 

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