Inclusion crown ether

Ion inclusion Crown ethers (15-crown-6, 18-crown-6, etc.) Cyclodextrins... 

Fig. 9. An inclusion complex formed between a protonated primary amine and a chiral crown ether.

Podates AcycHc analogues of crown ethers /coronands and cryptands (podands, eg, (11) (30) are also capable of forming inclusion compounds (podates) with cations and uncharged organic molecules, the latter being endowed with a hydrogen bond fiinctionahty. Podates normally are less stable than coronates and cryptates but have favorable kinetics. 

Other measures of nucleophilicity have been proposed. Brauman et al. studied Sn2 reactions in the gas phase and applied Marcus theory to obtain the intrinsic barriers of identity reactions. These quantities were interpreted as intrinsic nucleo-philicities. Streitwieser has shown that the reactivity of anionic nucleophiles toward methyl iodide in dimethylformamide (DMF) is correlated with the overall heat of reaction in the gas phase he concludes that bond strength and electron affinity are the important factors controlling nucleophilicity. The dominant role of the solvent in controlling nucleophilicity was shown by Parker, who found solvent effects on nucleophilic reactivity of many orders of magnitude. For example, most anions are more nucleophilic in DMF than in methanol by factors as large as 10, because they are less effectively shielded by solvation in the aprotic solvent. Liotta et al. have measured rates of substitution by anionic nucleophiles in acetonitrile solution containing a crown ether, which forms an inclusion complex with the cation (K ) of the nucleophile. These rates correlate with gas phase rates of the same nucleophiles, which, in this crown ether-acetonitrile system, are considered to be naked anions. The solvation of anionic nucleophiles is treated in Section 8.3. 

When the reaction of two compounds results in a product that contains all the mass of the two compounds, the product is called an addition compound. There are several kinds. In the rest of this chapter, we will discuss addition compounds in which the molecules of the starting materials remain more or less intact and weak bonds hold two or more molecules together. We can divide them into four broad classes electron donor-acceptor complexes, complexes formed by crown ethers and similar compounds, inclusion compounds, and catenanes. 

Chiral Recognition. The use of chiral hosts to form diastereomeric inclusion compounds was mentioned above. But in some cases it is possible for a host to form an inclusion compound with one enantiomer of a racemic guest, but not the other. This is caUed chiral recognition. One enantiomer fits into the chiral host cavity, the other does not. More often, both diastereomers are formed, but one forms more rapidly than the other, so that if the guest is removed it is already partially resolved (this is a form of kinetic resolution, see category 6). An example is use of the chiral crown ether (53) partially to resolve the racemic amine salt (54). " When an aqueous solution of 54 was... 

Lehn 242 243) has described a solid phase model of a K+ channel based on the crown ether 37. The crystal structure of this inclusion complex reveals stacking of the crown ethers into vertical columns, empirical formula [2 37,2 K, 3 H20]2+, linked by water and potassium ions. The counter ions, empirical formula [K, 3 Br, 4 H20]2, comprise a polymeric chain running parallel to the columns. 

One of the more important recent developments in organometallic aluminum chemistry has been the formation and isolation of low-coordinate compounds, and, in particular, cations. These were first prepared in reactions of various aluminum reagents with crown ethers to form the inclusion compounds known as liquid clathrates. 71,72 Most of the evidence supports the presence of ion pairs as the basis of the solvent inclusion effect. Indeed, the compound [AlMe2-18-crown-6]+[AlMe2Cl2] was isolated from one such system (the cation is shown in Figure 6(a)).73 This was the first time the Me2Al+ unit had been structurally characterized. 

In principle, mass spectrometry is not suitable to differentiate enantiomers. However, mass spectrometry is able to distinguish between diastereomers and has been applied to stereochemical problems in different areas of chemistry. In the field of chiral cluster chemistry, mass spectrometry, sometimes in combination with chiral chromatography, has been extensively applied to studies of proton- and metal-bound clusters, self-recognition processes, cyclodextrin and crown ethers inclusion complexes, carbohydrate complexes, and others. Several excellent reviews on this topic are nowadays available. A survey of the most relevant examples will be given in this section. Most of the studies was based on ion abundance analysis, often coupled with MIKE and CID ion fragmentation on MS " and FT-ICR mass spectrometric instruments, using Cl, MALDI, FAB, and ESI, and atmospheric pressure ionization (API) methods. 

Host-guest inclusion complexes, 262—263 antibiotic hosts, 231—233 cahxarene hosts, 228—231 chiral crown ether hosts, 213—218 cyclic oligosaccharide hosts, 218—222 cyclodextrin host selectivities, 223/ host molecular size, 221 hnear ohgosaccharide hosts, 222—228 ir- TT stacking interactions, 217 proteic hosts, 231 Human 15-hpoxygenase, 52/... 

A special technique proposed in the literature for the removal of dyes is the inclusion of dye into cave molecules such as crown-ethers/cucurbituril, but developments with regard to regeneration and disposal of the crown ether have to be performed to permit introduction into full-scale application [116]. 

Monocyclic or polycyclic molecules containing binding sites for one or more so-called guest molecules or ions. Examples include the crown ethers as well as numerous macrocycles containing other electronegative atoms besides oxygen. See Inclusion Complexes Host-Guest Interactions Cydodextrins... 

A molecule that contains one or more binding sites that can accommodate inorganic or organic ions referred to as guests. The binding site could even be a cavity within a crystal structure. Although enzymes clearly qualify as examples of host molecules, the term is usually restricted to structures such as crown ethers, macrocycles, and cyclodextrins. Nevertheless, these hosts do serve as models for molecular recognition. See also Crown Ethers Macrocycles Inclusion Complexes... 

HORN-BORNIG PLOT HORSERADISH PEROXIDASE HOST-GUEST INTERACTIONS HOST MOLECULE CROWN ETHERS MACROCYCLES INCLUSION COMPLEXES HOCKEL MOLECULAR-ORBITAL CALCULATIONS... 

It should be stressed that there is not alwaysjustice in reseach evaluation. The selective formation of inclusion complexes by cyclodextrins (such as 11) was established by Cramer [6] at least 15 years earlier than that by crown ethers. However, cyclodextrin studies forming an independent branch of host-guest chemistry seem underestimated in spite of their considerably greater practical importance at present than that of other host macrocycles (crown ethers 17, calixarenes 18, etc.). Sometimes they are even totally neglected by discussing inclusion phenomena [7]. 

As noted by Pedersen in his seminal paper [1], he had clear evidence of the existence of several crown ether complexes in solution although he was notable to crystallize them. In solution prevailing majority of inclusion complexes is present in the equilibrium with their free hosts and guests [9c]. Exceptions are... 

Pedersen used reactions of nucleophilic substitution to synthesize most of the crown ethers he has obtained. On the other hand, Lehn and his coworkers [17] (Fig. 7.1.4) carried out cyclization reactions involving amide formation under high dilution conditions in their quest for cryptands such as 54. Pedersen analysis of the selective inclusion of alkali metal cations into the crown ethers cavity... 

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