In reptiles

Guillette LJJ, Crain DA, Rooney A. 1994. Endocrine-disrupting environmental contaminants and reproductive abnormalities in reptiles. Comments Toxicol 5 381-399. 

Fig. 4.2 Differentiation from olfactory placode of main and VN primordia (a) to (b), embryonic stages in reptiles (Squamates and Crocodylia). (a), Early invagination of placode (a ), late separation of primordia for AOS/MOS and (b), agenesis of presumptive VN(JO) cells in crocodile (NPT, nasal pit) (from Parsons, 1970).

Burghardt G. (1980). Behavioral and stimulus correlates of vomeronasal functioning in reptiles feeding, grouping, sex and tongue use. In Chemical Signals Vertebrates and Aquatic Invertebrates 1 (Miiller-Schwarze D. and Silverstein R.M., eds.). Plenum, New York, pp. 275-302. 

Coates E.L. and Ballam G.O. (1989). Breathing and upper airway CO2 in reptiles role of the nasal and vomeronasal systems. Am J Physiol 256, 91-97. 

Halpem M. (1992). Nasal chemical senses in reptiles structure and function. In Biology of the Reptilia (Gans C. and Crews D., eds.). Chicago University Press, pp. 423-524. 

Lohman A. and Smeets W. (1993). Overview of the main and accessory olfactoiy bulb projections in reptiles. Brain Behav Evol 41, 147-155. 

Halpern, M. (1992) Nasal chemical senses in reptiles Structure and function. In C. Gans and D. Crews (Eds.), Hormones, Brain and Behavior. Biology of the Reptilia.Vol. 18, Physiology E. (pp. 423-523) Chicago University of Chicago Press. 

Oxytocin, a nine amino acid peptide, is synthesized primarily in the paraventricular and supraoptic (SON) nuclei of the hypothalamus, from which it is released to the general circulation through the posterior pituitary (Insel et ah, 1997). However, oxytocinergic fibers have also been found to project from the PVN to the limbic system and several autonomic centers in the brain stem. This central OT pool appears to be independent of pituitary OT release cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and plasma OT responses to numerous stimuli are not correlated (Insel, 1997). Oxytocin and its analog (or partner) peptide vasopressin are found only in mammals. A related peptide, vasotocin, thought to be the evolutionary precedent of these peptides, is found in reptiles and birds. The first known actions of OT were its peripheral effects on the physiology of new mothers. In mammals, OT stimulates milk ejection and uterine contraction, essential aspects of maternal physiology (Insel et ah, 1997). 

AMP aminohydrolase, an enzyme relatively specific for AMP, has been observed in reptiles (44), erythrocytes (38), snail (45), unfertilized fish eggs (46), invertebrates (47), a variety of mammalian tissues (20), and a particulate fraction of pea seeds (48). Evidence suggests that the frog muscle AMP aminohydrolase is located within or just beneath the sarcolemma (49). The rabbit skeletal and heart muscle enzymes were found in the cytoplasm and mitochondria (20, Jfi, 50, 51), while the enzyme of kidneys and gills of freshwater fish was located in the cytoplasmic fraction (52). The enzyme occurs in most areas of the rat (53) and rabbit brain (54). The nonspecific enzyme from several microbial sources deaminates adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) as well as AMP (see Section V). 

Table 12 Mean concentrations of perfluorinated compounds (pg/kg and amphibians from the Great Lakesa or pg/L) in reptiles...

Luther et al. (1996) conducted a systematic study of the occurrence of the simple lattice and superlattice across the vertebrate kingdom. Superlattices are present in the muscles of all the higher vertebrates, namely, in mammals (including humans), in amphibians, in birds, in reptiles, and in some muscles of cartilaginous fish. Simple lattices occur in all the teleost (bony fish) muscles so far studied, in some muscles of cartilaginous fish, and also in some primitive fish such as sturgeons and bowfin. 

Amino Acid Conjugation. In the second type of acylation reaction, exogenous carboxylic acids are activated to form S-CoA derivative in a reaction involving ATP and CoA. These CoA derivatives then acylate the amino group of a variety of amino acids. Glycine and glutamate appear to be the most common acceptor of amino acids in mammals in other organisms, other amino acids are involved. These include ornithine in reptiles and birds and taurine in fish. 

While the complete oxidations of fats and carbohydrates yield C02 + H20, the complete oxidation of amino acids yields C02 + H20 and as well as ammonia. Three fates of this so-called nitrogen waste product are common in animals it can be excreted into the outside medium (ammonotelism, which is common in many aquatic animals) it can be excreted as uric acid (uricotely, common in reptiles and birds) or, it can be excreted as urea (common... 

Campbell, J.W. (1995). Excretory Nitrogen Metabolism in Reptiles and Birds. In Nitrogen Metabolism and Excretion, pp. 147-178, ed. P.J. Walsh and P.A. Wright. Boca Raton, Florida CRC. 

In summary, the total quantity of mitochondrial membrane surface area and the per unit area flux of protons through futile cycle channels are higher in mammals than in reptiles of similar body size. These differences in the quantitative and qualitative properties of mitochondria seem capable of accounting for much of the difference in mass-specific metabolic rate between mammals and reptiles that is, they may provide a mechanistic account for the observed four- to fivefold difference in the a term in the allometric equation, M = aW0 75. 

Pineal gland A tiny, light-sensitive organ in the center of the brain, also called the pineal eye or "third eye." In reptiles it controls changes in skin color. In humans it is a master gland of the endocrine system, probably regulating many biorhythms. 

CRN4/C0R01A Present in reptiles (e.g., Anolis carolinensis) ... 

Because of the slow elimination (long half-life) of antimicrobial agents in reptiles, dosage intervals are substantially longer in reptilian compared with mammalian species (Jacobson, 1993) (Table 6.14). To avoid significantly decreased systemic availability of drugs that are eliminated by renal excretion (e.g. (3-lactam and aminoglycoside antibiotics), the site of intramuscular injection should be the anterior half of the body most reptilian species have a well-developed renal portal system. 

Table 6.14 Suggested dosage regimens for antimicrobial preparations that may be used in reptiles. 

Jacobson, E.R. (1993) Antimicrobial drug use in reptiles. In Antimicrobial Therapy in Veterinary Medicine, (eds J.F. Prescott J.D. Baggot), 2nd edn. Chapter 29, pp. 542-552. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa. 

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