Hydrogen-powered

L. O. WiUiams, Hydrogen Power Mn Introduction to Hydrogen Energy and its Applications, Pergamoa Press, Oxford, U.K., 1980, p. 61. 

R. L. WooUey and G. J. Germaine, "Dynamic Tests of Hydrogen-Powered IC Engines," World Hydrogen Unergy Conference, Miami Beach, Fla., 1976. 

R. L. WooUey, Peformance of a Hydrogen-Powered Transit Uehicle, Technical Library, International Academy of Science, Independence, Mo., 1976. 

L. B. McGown and J. O M. Bockris, How to Obtain Abundant Clean Energy, Plenum, New York, 1980, 275 pp. L. O. Williams, Hydrogen Power, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1980, 158 pp. 

A number of experimental hydrogen-powered vehicles have been built, dating back to the 1930s. Beginning in the early 1990s, zero-emission-vehicle regulations (enacted first m California and later in Massachusetts and New York) and government... 

Pollution, especially at the local level, is minimized since, from a hydrogen-powered cell, the only by-product is water. 

Fossil fuels are nonrenewable, and combustion products contaminate the atmosphere. Consequently, scientists are searching for new sources of energy. One possibility is molecular hydrogen, which releases energy when it reacts with oxygen 2 H2(g) + 02(g) 2H2 0(/) + Energy Hydrogen powers the rockets of the space shuttle,... 

In the USA, the Clean Air Act of 1970 established air-quality standards for six major pollutants particulate matter, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and photochemical oxidants. It also set standards for automobile emissions - the major source of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides. An overview of the major standards is given in Tab. 10.2. The levels of, for example, the European Union (1996) are easily achieved with the present catalysts. The more challenging standards, up to those for the ultralow emission vehicle, are within reach, but zero-emission will probably only be attainable for a hydrogen-powered vehicle. 

Several models of HICE vehicles have been demonstrated and few are commercially available [25,28,33,38]. However, hydrogen-powered vehicles will not be available to common public until there is an adequate refueling infrastructure and trained technicians to repair and maintain these vehicles. The design of each hydrogen-powered vehicle may vary from manufacturer to manufacturer and model to model. One model may be simple in design... 

Considering both storage and refueling technologies, the most promising short-term alternative is probably compressed gas storage [53,55]. Prototype hydrogen-powered vehicles... 

Rizeq G., West ]., Frydman A., Subia R., Zamansky V. and Das K., Advanced Gasification-Combustion Technology for Production of Hydrogen Power and Sequestration-ready C02, Gasification Technologies 2003, Oct. 12-15, San Francisco, CA, 2003. 

A stand-alone wind-hydrogen power station diagram including the basic modules. 

This terminal point in hydrogen production can be used for refueling hydrogen-powered or hydrogen transport vehicles. There is also an option to canalize hydrogen in a natural gas (NG) pipeline provided that the distance from the WF is fairly short. Flydrogen injection in NG pipelines may improve NG energy properties [45]. 

As mentioned earlier, separation of C02 at concentrated sources is easier than from the environment, and carbon capture at upstream decarbonizes many subsequent economic sectors. However, it does require significant changes in the existing infrastructure of power and chemical plants. Furthermore, approximately half of all emissions arise from small, distributed sources. Many of these emitters are vehicles for which onboard capture is not practical. Thus, unless all the existing automobiles are replaced by either hydrogen-powered fuel cell cars or electric cars, the capture of C02 from the air provides another alternative for small mobile emitters. 

Rizeq, G. et al., Advanced gasification-combustion technology for production of hydrogen, power and sequestration-ready COz, Presented at Gasification Technologies 2003, San Francisco, CA, October 12-15, 2003. 

Recent commercial projects use refinery waste or products that no longer have a positive market value, such as petroleum coke (petcoke) or heavy oils. Many of these projects are referred to as trigeneration plants because they produce hydrogen, power, and steam for use within the refinery and... 

After it has been separated, hydrogen is an unusually clean-energy carrier and clean enough for the U.S. space shuttle program to use hydrogen-powered fuel cells to operate the shuttle s electrical systems while the by-product of drinking water is used by the crew. 

NASA is focusing on liquid-hydrogen power as part of its Vehicle Systems program. This includes a zero-emissions hydrogen-powered fuel-cell aircraft with cryogenic electric motors in the wing. 

ExxonMobil has given 100 million to the Stanford University Global Climate and Energy Project, where research projects are involved with hydrogen power, advanced combustion, solar energy, biomass, advanced materials, catalysts and C02 storage, C02 capture, and separation. 

Compressed gas is being used in most current demonstration vehicles. But, the path to commercialization of any major new technology is a long one. In 2003 Toyota recalled some of its hydrogen-powered fuel cell vehicles when a leak was found in the fuel tank of one of the cars leased to Japan s Ministry of the Environment. The leak was found when a driver at the ministry heard a strange noise in the car when he was filling up the hydrogen tank. The problem was quickly identified and fixed a few weeks later. 

Hydrogen powered cars need to hold enough fuel to get the 300 mile driving range of today s IC cars. Hydrogen service stations are few, so refueling becomes a problem. About 12,000 fuel stations in the hundred largest cities in the U.S. would put 70% of the population within 2 miles of fuel. At a cost of one million dollars per station, 12 billion would be needed to provide a fuel infrastructure. This is less than half of what it would cost to build the Alaska pipeline in today s dollars. 

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