Hierarchy of evidence

In academia as well as in the justice system of a state under the rule of law, there is a hierarchy of evidence reflecting the evidential value. In this hierarchy, material and documentary evidence is always superior to eyewitness testimony.4 Thus, academia as well as the justice system regard eyewitness testimony as the least reliable form of evidence, since human memory is imperfect and eas-... 

In addition to hierarchies of strength of evidence, scales have been developed to assess the quality of an individual clinical trial. However, the scales are diverse... 

During the course of the article, we will present evidence that the histones constitute part of a self-assembly system (Section IV). In the absence of DNA they retain the information to interact with each other to form a hierarchy of structures with dimensions, periodicities, and intermolecular contacts, compatible with what is known about the protein core of chromatin. This strongly suggests that histone-histone interactions have a fundamental role in chromatin structure. 

The Hierarchy of Problems in the Metala-Logy Principle and Experimental Evidence for the Existence of Pragmatic Rules.57... 

If the hierarchy of information levels available in ESCA were limited to those discussed in detail in the proceeding sections the technique would clearly be extremely useful and versatile in many applications. It is evident, however, that for systems in which only a single core level is available for study and for which no chemical shifts are apparent that the range of applications of the the technique to such systems would be limited. Fortunately ESCA is a much more interesting and subtle technique and such systems are encompassed when we consider the information available from the direct study of low energy shake up satellites. 

Finally, the inhibitory effects of phenothiazines on the formation of Of by PMNs have been interpreted as evidence for the participation of calmodulin in the transmission of the signal from the surface of the cell to the oxidase. One action of phenothiazines is to inhibit the effects of the complex of calmodulin and Ca . The activity of the effector molecule, such as phosphodiesterase, which would normally be stimulated by the binary complex of Ca with calmodulin, is not stimulated in the presence of phenothiazines. Jones et al. have shown that in both intact PMNs and in membranous fragments of PMNs stimulated with opsonized zymosan, phenothiazines inhibit the formation of Of. The hierarchy of potency of the various pheno-... 

To solve the problem, one has to consider the infinite (due to (5.2.7)) hierarchy of the non-linear equations (5.2.6). The set of correlation functions is complete and equation (5.2.6) is exact. The quantities wm in (5.2.7) are no longer the effective trapping probabilities, since it is not self-evident that the integral term there is positively defined. 

In a recent survey [19] it was noted that a realistic model for catalytic oxidation reactions must include equations describing the evolution of at least two concentrations of surface substances and account for the slow variation in the properties of the catalyst surface (e.g. oxidation-reduction). For the synchronization of the dynamic behaviour for various surface domains, it is necessary to take into consideration changes in the concentrations of gas-phase substances and the temperature of the catalyst surface. It is evident that, in the hierarchy of modelling levels, such models must be constructed and tested immediately after kinetic models. On the one hand, the appearance of such models is associated with the experimental data on self-oscillations in reactors with noticeable concentration variations of the initial substances and products (e.g. ref. 74) on the other hand, there was a gap between the comprehensively examined non-isothermal models with simple kinetics and those for the complex heterogeneous catalytic reactions... 

Ancient bones are somewhat like wind vanes that show from which direction a particular hypothesis breezes across the fossil field. If a paradigm is useful one should be able to predict what will be found at the end of the projected course. This means that one can put a general evolutionary hypothesis like a grid over the pattern of evidence and see how fossils and expectations match. In the standard model predictions are not possible because the phenotype lattice radiates from one spot (the common ancestor) with every beam studded with chance-initiated branch points that give rise to unpredictable patterns.1 By rules of the Genomic Potential Hypothesis the future position of a species in the hierarchy of taxa is, in principle, predictable. The discussion of our own past will reflect this fundamental change in philosophy. 

FIGURE 19.1 Types of evidence and their level in the evidence hierarchy. 

In our studies of the open-framework zinc oxalates, we have recently isolated monomeric, dimeric, ID linear chain, 2D layer, and 3D structures by the reaction of amine oxalates with Zn2+ ions,21 suggesting thereby that the presence of a hierarchy of structures is not unique to the phosphates alone. We believe that the evidence provided by our studies for the existence of an Aufbau principle of open-framework complex structures is of considerable significance. Many other complex inorganic structures are also likely to be formed by similar building-up processes, involving basic building units and self-assembly. 

FIGURE 11 Hierarchy of phases in catalysts developed from their function. At the level of the active phase confusion can arise from spectators and unnecessary admixtures or deactivated phases. Phase cooperation phenomena are frequently ascribed to beneficial effects these admixtures without much experimental evidence. 

The Solar System, in comparison, offers two lines of evidence to constrain the timescale for the lifetime of the proto-solar nebula and the epoch of planetesimal formation. On one side, relatively unaltered chondritic components preserve traces of their chemical and thermal history on the other side, dynamical information is imprinted on the hierarchy of the Solar System. 

It is important to note that neither objective historians nor jurists may uncritically accept everything that someone recounts as being the plain truth, but must establish the value of such reports. The first step in this process is to fit eyewitness testimony properly into the hierarchy of the various types of evidence. Then one must consider how the individual testimony came to be - for example, whether there were manipulative factors that may have impinged on the witness and influenced his testimony. 

In considering the solution of the approximate problem, a number of points are evident. It is highly desirable to tackle the problem with a hierarchy of methods and models. The design process can be likened to a mixture of broad and deep searches over the space of design options. The search has two main mechanisms ... 

A number of interrelated factors determining the interaction of metal nanoparticles with the support and, consequently, affecting their stability to sintering may operate. Evidently there is a hierarchy of these factors in the extent... 

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