Heterorhabditis nematodes

Keywords Bioagent Entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis In-vitro In-vivo Moraxella Phasmarhabditis Photorhabdus Slug-parasitic Steinernema Xenorhabdus... 

Since 1994, the nematodes are being sold as commercial product under the trade name Nemaslug (Glen et al. 1994, 1996) prepared by MicroBio Ltd. (now Becker Underwood) and now the sale of this biological molluscicide has increased to many other European countries like France, Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Italy and Ireland. However, the shelf life of this product is very less when compared to other entomopathogenic nematodes such as Steinernema sp. or Heterorhabditis sp. (Ester and Wilson 2005). 

Bhatnagar A, Bareth SS. Effect of soil moisture on the survival of entomopathogenic nematode, Heterorhabditis bacteriophora Poinar 1976, in sandy loam soil. Pest Manag Econ Zool. 2003 11 1-6. 

Ehlers RU, Oestergaard J, Hollmer S, Wingen M, Strauch O. Genetic selection for heat tolerance and low temperature activity of the entomopathogenic nematode-bacterium complex Heterorhabditis bacteriophora - Photorhabdus luminescens. Bio Cont (Dordrecht). 2005 50 699-716. 

Griffin CT, Chaerani R, Fallon D, Reid AP, Downes MJ. (2000) Occurrence and distribution of the entomopathogenic nematodes Steinemema spp. and Heterorhabditis indica in Indonesia. J Helmin 74 143-150. 

Griffin CT, Joyce SA, Dix I, Burnell AM, Downes MJ. Characterization of the entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis (Nematoda Heterorhabditidae) from Ireland and Britain by molec-... 

Kumar MR, Parihar A, Siddiqui AU. Effects of entomopathogenic nematode, Heterorhabditis sp., on Spodoptera litura. Ann Plant Protect Sci. 2003 11 406 107. 

Malan AP, Nguyen KB, De-Waal JY, Uedt L. Heterorhabditis safricana n. sp. (Rhabditida Heterorhabditidae), a new entomopathogenic nematode from South Africa. Nematology. 2008 10 381-396. 

Susurluk IA. Influence of temperature on the vertical movement of the entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema feltiae (TUR-S3) and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora (TUR-H2) and infectivity of the moving nematodes. Nematology. 2008 10 137-141. 

Wharton DA, Surrey MR. Cold tolerance mechanisms of the infective larvae of the insect parasitic nematode. Heterorhabditis zelandica, Poinar, Cryo Letters. 1994 15 353-360. 

Wouts WM. Mass production of the entomogenous nematodes Heterorhabditis heliothidis (Nematoda Heterorhabditidae) on artificial media. J Nematol. 1981 13 467—469. 

Geden, C.J., Axtell, R.C., and Brooks, W.M. 1985. Susceptibility of the lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus (Coleoptera Tenebrionidae) to the entomogenous nematodes Steinernema feltiae, S. glaseri (Steinemematidae) and Heterorhabditis heliothidis (Heterorhabditidae). J. Entomol. Sci. 20, 331-339. 

Morris, O.N. 1985. Susceptibility of 31 species of agricultural insect pests to the entomogeneous nematodes Steinernema feltiae and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora. Can. Entomol. 117, 401-407. 

The nematode species of most interest for the control of crop insect pests are from the genera Steinernema and Heterorhabditis, both characterised by their association with bacteria from the genera Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus. These nematodes invade the insect and then release their symbiotic bacteria into the insect s haemocoel. The nematodes release metabolites that repress the immune system of the insect, allowing the bacteria to develop. The bacteria then release toxins that kill the insect within two to three days and also produce antibiotics that prevent the invasion of the dead insect by other bacteria. These bacteria then invade the entire insect cadaver and the nematodes subsequently begin to consume the bacteria. 

Hu K, Li. 1, Wang W, Wu H, Lin H, Webster JM. Comparison of metabolites produced in vitro and in vivo by Photorhabdus lumi-nescens, a bacterial symbiont of the entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis megidis Can. J. Microbiol. 1998 44 1072-1077. 

Heterorhabditis megidis Parasitic nematode that controls soil insects (insecticide)... 

Chen, G., Dunphy, G.B. and Webster, J.M. (1994) Antifungal activity of two Xenorhab-dus species and Photorhabdus luminescens, bacteria associated with the nematodes Steinernema species and Heterorhabditis megidis. Biological Control 4, 157-162. 

Abscisic acid is a sequiterpene phytohormone that is induced by drought and promotes stomatal closure and seed dormancy. Other sesquiterpenes take part in tritrophic plant-herbivore-parasite interactions (reviewed by Dudareva et al., 2006). In maize infested with lepidopteran larvae, the sesquiterpenes ( )-P-famesene and the ( )-a-bergamotene (Fig. 30) attract the parasitic wasp Cotesia marginiventris (Schnee et al., 2006). Maize roots release ( )-P-caryophyllene (Fig. 30) upon attack of larvae of the beetle Diabrotica virgifera to attract the parasitic nematode Heterorhabditis megidis (Rasmann et al., 2005). 

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