Geographical latitude

Geographical latitudes are measured from the equator, not the north pole. 

Fig. 2.7. (a) Spheroidal system of coordinates, (b, c) reduced and geographical latitudes, systems is... 

We have derived Equation (2.164), which shows how the field varies with the reduced latitude p on the surface of the spheroid. The reduced latitude is the angle between the radius vector and the equatorial plane. Fig. 2.7c. Also, it is useful to study the function y — y q>), where tp is the geographical latitude. This angle is formed by the normal to the ellipsoid at the given point p and the equatorial plane. Fig. 2.7b. First, we find expressions for coordinates v, y of the meridian ellipse. Its equation is... 

The PNA/pyridine actinometer is useful for very fast reactions. In sunlight, it can be adjusted to half-lives between a few minutes and about 12 h. The upper time limit is determined by the (very high) k value of PNA [ 5000 einstein (mol PNA)-1 d-1 for a midsummer day at 40°N latitude], and the (rather small) d> R value of 3 x 10-4 (Dulin and Mill, 1982 Leifer, 1988). In comparison, as we discussed earlier, for the same geographic latitude and time, PNAP exhibits a k value that is about 10 times smaller [i.e., 532 einstein (mol PNAP)-1 day"1], and it has an even smaller quantum yield as compared to PNA (0°R < 10 5, Dulin and Mill, 1982). Hence, although PNAP absorbs sunlight at an appreciable rate, its (direct) photolytic half-life would be very large in a natural water. In the presence of pyridine in a test vessel, however, the photolytic half-life can be adjusted to range between a few hours and several months (for details see Dulin and Mill, 1982, or Leifer, 1988). 

It is clear that = (current time. For territory Q the biocomplexity indicator is defined as a mean value ... 

Not very long after the discovery of the deficiency of isoniazid acetylation, it turned out that the frequency of this phenotypic fault also differed much between the world s populations (47). Today, the reason for this particular interethnic variability is still unknown an influence of geographical latitude and climate is suspected. Such scientific uncertainty is common in this field of research, and it contrasts with the clear-cut findings relating malaria resistance and G-6-PD deficiency (see below). 

The angles and 9 as polar coordinates correspond to the geographical latitude and longitude respectively, while r is the distance from the centre, the nucleus. For the energy of the higher states we have the same formula as in Bohr s theory. 

Toxic doses of the plant extract are difficult to determine due to differing concentrations of eight pip-eridinic alkaloids in the plant. The concentrations of alkaloids vary with the age of the plant. Plants up to 1-year-old have very low alkaloid content in roots, 0.15% in stems and 0.3-0.6% in the leaves. Plants in their second year have an alkaloid content of 1% in all parts of the plant. Geographic latitude and drying will also affect the coniine content of the plant. A toxic dose of coniine is estimated to be... 

The tidal acceleration at any point on earth at any point in time can be computed from the tidal potential. This is either done analytically (Bartels, 1957) or via finite-difference approximation -AO/(/ cos (p A2) or -A/( / Awater particle at the equator is clearly subject to alternating acceleration because the acceleration vector twice points east, and twice west. At 20°E, 59°N, that is, in the middle of the Baltic Sea, the vector points predominantly in southerly directions. The asymmetric picture at the Baltic Sea location results from the latitude dependent terms in (7.18) and (7.19), which cause the equipotential surface to be lowered by an average 19 cm at the poles, and to be raised by about 10cm at the equator (Torge, 2003). Near the north Pole, the amounts of tidal acceleration decrease strongly and there remains a purely diurnal fluctuation. 

What we observe here at the earth s surface is certainly not the original cosmic radiation, but a mixture of that with secondary ra.dia-tion, consisting of electrons ejected from air molecuk s, or appearing in the process of pair production referred to b(dow. Some. lig.ht appears to be thrown on the question of the nature of th( . primary radiation by the fact that its intensity depends on the geographical latitude (Clay) it is weaker at the equator than at the poles. It must therefore he... 

Annual changes in the amount of total ozone (x) in the Northern Hemisphere as a function of geographical latitude (Khrguian, 1973). (By courtesy of Gidrometizdat)... 

Note Collections were made in remote oceanic areas.

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Statistical models, in which the variables depend only on geographical latitude and time. In these models large scale atmospheric motions are taken into account statistically. 

In the above expressions, I is the dip angle of the magnetic field. For magnetic poles coincident with the geographic poles, tan I = 2 tan time constant (1/AXX) associated with ion drag is typically 1 day at 120 km and about 1 hour at 250 km. The Lorentz effect (Axy) plays a role only in the lower thermosphere (110 to 150 km). 

At the higher geographic latitudes, it is possible to observe seasonal changes maximum and minimum concentrations are observed in the spring and autumn, respectively [9]. 

The borders between the layers are named the tropopause, stratopause, mesopause and thermopause, respectively. The vertical temperature profile changes with the geographic latitude. 

For example, at intermediate geographic latitudes, the temperature gradually decreases with increasing altitude, reaching a minimum value of approximately 210 K at an altitude of about 15 km at the equator, the minimum temperature of 190 K is observed at an altitude of 17 km and at poles a minimum temperature of 200 K is observed at an altitude of 8 km [9]. The vertical temperature structure of the standard atmosphere is shown in Fig. 5.2, which represents a typical distribution for intermediate geographic latitudes [6, 8]. 

The troposphere is delimited by the tropopause, where the lowest temperature is reached, and which is more or less constant. At intermediate geographic latitudes, the tropopause is at altitudes of 10 to 12 km with temperatures of 220 to 210 K. 

At intermediate and lower geographic latitudes, the temperature remains essentially constant up to an altitude of 35 km and then it increases. The maximal temperature is reached at altitudes of 50 to 60 km being 273 K above the equator and at intermediate geographic latitudes [9, 16]. This region is referred to as the stratopause and, similarly to the tropopause, it is thermally stabilized. A portion of the stratosphere in the range of 15 to 35 km altitude is named the ozonosphere. 

At the mesopause, there is again an extreme temperature (a minimum) at a height of 85 km. The temperature above the equator ranges between 190 and 200 K, at intermediate geographic latitudes it is 170 to 210 K and at higher latitudes, 130 to 230 K (the higher and lower values correspond to the summer and winter, respectively) [9, 16]. The layer is thermally stabilized. 

It needs to be emphasized that the vertical temperature profile varies depending on the geographic latitude and solar activity. For example, the tropopause is essentially higher and it has lower temperatures above tropical areas as compared to those above the polar regions. In the lowest layers of the stratosphere, the temperature profile depends on the geographic situ-... 

In comparison with the United States, China has similarities in size of territory, and geographical latitude. But China has a population of 1 billion (4.5 times that of the U.S.) and a harvested land of 100 million hectares (about 80% of that of the... 

X 1) Radioactive decay constant. 2) Geographic latitude of a sampling site on the Earth s surface. 3) Wavelength. 

The measuring time T is only dependent on the geographical latitude B, e.g. ... 

In the same sense slope at a given site against rotations of the axis of earth (depending on geographical latitude). 

For best results the collector should generally face due south (or north in the southern hemisphere), but a deviation of about 20° from this either way would not make much difference. To get the maximum annual total irradiation, the collector should face the annual mean position of the sun, which means that the angle of tilt (from the horizontal) should be the same as the geographical latitude. In most places, however, less sun is available in winter, thus it is usual to give the tilt a winter bias, that is, to set the tilt as the latitude +10° to reduce the difference between winter and summer performance. 

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