Future carbonation

Wigley, T. M. L. (1993). Balancing the carbon budget Implications for projections of future carbon dioxide concentration changes, Tellus 45B, 409-425. 

While there is tremendous potential for solar energy to contribute substantially to the future carbon free power needs, none of the routes listed above are currently competitive with fossil fuels from cost, reliability, and performance perspectives. Photovoltaic solar cells have been around for decades and have been widely dep loyed in space vehicles. Terrestrially, their utilization thus far has been limited to niche applications or remote locales where less expensive electricity is not available. Costs for turnkey installations were 6 10 times more expensive in 1999 for solar... 

Technical interest in carbon dioxide may also grow in the future. Carbon dioxide is abundant and easily available, but there are major drawbacks to Us use. It is often a chemical sink for oxygen and only marginally better from a thermodynamic viewpoint than water. 

It appears that there is not much to do in order to reduce uncertainties at least in the near future. Uncertainty regarding future allocations can however affect the investment decisions by companies. A recent report from RIS0 National Laboratory (Morthorst etal. 2005) indicates that uncertainties in the electricity market, including uncertainties in future carbon prices and allocations, may postpone investments in the power sector and reduce the security of Denmark s electricity supply. 

Future changes in methane are difficult to estimate because we do not yet have complete knowledge of the sources and sinks of methane. The recent slowing down in the increase of methane is not well understood. Another problem concerns possible changes in the future carbon cycle. Will the future uptake of carbon in the terrestrial biosphere increase faster or slower than the emission of carbon dioxide or not To better understand the carbon cycle in a changing climate is one of the big challenges of the future. 

Some companies have implemented strategies to prepare for what they believe is an inevitable carbon constraint. In part, these strategies are designed to mitigate the risks of future carbon legislation. However, some companies have also staked out positions that they hope will influence potential future mandatory programs. This section will ... 

Market risks securing the investment by long-term contracts The consortium is likely to benefit from favorable financial terms because of the presence of municipal utilities which will be a proof of predictability of the customer base and stability (TIACT, 2005). They could transfer risks to local consumers via their tariff s. Moreover 75 percent of the NRG s energy share (44 percent) will be sold by long-term contracts with historic suppliers in Texas. Only the production of the remaining 400 MW will be sold in the market in order to seize opportunities to retain benefits from future carbon policies in the medium term. ... 

Carbonation depth is easily measured by exposing fresh concrete and spraying it with phenolphthalein indicator solution. The carbonation depth must then be related to the cover (the average and its variation) so that the extent to which carbonation has reached the rebar can be estimated, and the future carbonation rate estimated. 

The impact of global climate change on future carbon stocks is particularly complex. These changes might result in both positive and negative feedbacks on carbon stocks. For example, increases in atmospheric CO2 are known to stimulate plant... 

The safety of CO2 storage is realized by a small diffusive loss rate compared with the capture rate (catastrophic events of CO2 eruptions from geological stocks postulated not to occur). Hence, a CO2 residence time of only a few hundred years in geological stocks is sufficient to effectively compensate climate impacts from CO2. Moreover, CO2 storage is a resource for future carbon use. 

For the further development of CCS (Carbon Capture and Storage) an integrated approach is needed to optiinize the full chain from capture, via transport to application. For the near future, carbon dioxide will be one of the largest commodities. In order to manage the captured CO2 it is anticipated that for different cases, like for example different sources of the CO2 and geographic location, different options will apply. The potential of various options for CO2 utilization are discussed in this paper. An overview will be given of a number of possible applications where CO2 is used as feedstock. For different applications the operational boundaries and the specific requirements will he addressed. 

Although these composites with polymer carbon are already widely used in critical structural parts in aerospace technology, a broad industrial application in place of metals still needs improved polymer matrices, development of more economic fabrication methods for the composites, sophisticated design for special tailoring of the material and further cost reduction for the carbon fibres. Nevertheless, material scientists, trusting on further development of polymers, dream of the vision of a future "carbon age". 

A detailed analysis of hydrogen adsorption on various nanostructured carbon materials has been reported in a thorongh review by Strobel et al. (2006). These authors regard it as quite possible that in the future, carbon structures will be found on which hydrogen adsorption in amounts of or even above 6 wt% could be achieved. 

Understanding the key drivers of historic and future carbon emissions is critical to developing policies to control emissions. Yoichi Kaya developed a simple analytical framework to understand the relationship between population, economic activity, energy, and emissions. He observed a simple identity that has significant analytical power ... 

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