Fusion experiments

In the spring of 1989, it was announced that electrochemists at the University of Utah had produced a sustained nuclear fusion reaction at room temperature, using simple equipment available in any high school laboratory. The process, referred to as cold fusion, consists of loading deuterium into pieces of palladium metal by electrolysis of heavy water, E)20, thereby developing a sufficiently large density of deuterium nuclei in the metal lattice to cause fusion between these nuclei to occur. These results have proven extremely difficult to confirm (20,21). Neutrons usually have not been detected in cold fusion experiments, so that the D-D fusion reaction familiar to nuclear physicists does not seem to be the explanation for the experimental results, which typically involve the release of heat and sometimes gamma rays. 

Controlled thermonuclear fusion experiments and certain types of confined arcs known as pinches have temperatures in the 5 x 10 -10 K range. However, to be successhil, controlled thermonuclear fusion needs to take place from 6 x 10 -10 K. In fact, the goal of all fusion devices is to produce high ion temperatures in excess of the electron temperature (10). 

A number of attempts have been made to accomplish nnclear transformations of heavier elements while making nse of similar electrode-solution systems. Undoubtedly, most of these attempts belong in the area of science hction. To some extent, this casts a shadow on all those who have participated in cold-fusion experiments. 

Nuclear fusion reactors do not split uranium atoms. They fuse hydrogen atoms in a process similar to that which occurs in the Sun and other stars. Although fusion physics is a common occurrence in stars, controlled fusion experiments continue. In 1994, theTokamak facility at Princeton reached a fusion plasma temperature of 510 million degrees and had a power output of 10.7 megawatts. 

The assay principle should, however, be applicable to any target hapten, unlike assays based on a chemical modification. Cloning efficiency of the hybridoma-secreting anti-idiotype antibodies would be in a practical range, and much higher than that of anti-metatype antibodies. We (Kl) established four kinds of a-type and two kinds of /3-type anti-idiotype antibodies after three fusion experiments, each using spleen cells from one immunized mouse. Barnard et al. (Bl, B3, B4)... 

Natural lipids used for fusion experiments were mainly phospholipids with different chain lengths and their mixtures with cholesterol. As polymerizable lipids, butadienic derivatives with a phosphatidylcholine (19) and a dimethylammonium head group (26) were used in the fusion experiments. 

J. P. Vigier, New quantum mechanical tight bound states and cold fusion experiments, Phys. Lett. A 265(3), 163-167 (2000). 

At laser irradiances of typically about 10 Wcm and above, dense plasmas are formed from any solid sample, as is well documented by the large number of laser fusion experiments. In this mode of operation, energy is deposited into the solid during the initial... 

The Tokamak device was invented in 1960, and several nuclear fusion experiments have been carried out in it. Tokamaks are containers which have a very high quality vacuum and within which there are the strongest known magnetic fields. 

An experimental UHY vacuum vessel used in fusion experiments is to be made of Inconel with a wall thickness of 89 mm. According to the manufacturer s data, the solubility of H2 in Inconel is 0.4 mbar L cm 3 at about 1500°C. 

Human cells are killed by 10 7 ouabain, but mouse cells are relatively resistant in that 10 3M is a lethal dose. Mouse human hybrids show intermediate sensitivity and hence HAT medium containing 10 7M ouabain can be used to select for hybrids between any human cell and TK or HPRT mouse cells. This enables primarily human cells and other non-selected strains to be used in fusion experiments (Mayhew, 1972 Thompson and Baker, 1973). 

O is the angle between the particle trajectory and the field B, E is the kinetic energy and A is the atomic number. Typical conditions in present fusion experiments are... 

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