Fundamental information

Particle Motion and Scale-Up Veiy little fundamental information is published on centrifugal granulators. Qualitatively, good operation rehes on maintaining a smoothly rotating stable rope of tumbling... 

The information is qualitative in nature. The area density of dots suggests local concentration differences, but the count rate at each point, which is fundamental information required for quantitation, is lost. 

Fundamental information from vibrational spectra is important for understanding a wide range of chemical and physical properties of surfaces, e.g., chemical reactivity and forces involved in the atomic rearrangement (relaxation and reconstruction) of solid surfaces. Practical applications of HREELS include studies of ... 

It-from-bit embodies the central notion that every it - that is, every aspect of reality electrons, protons, photons, fields of force, or even the what we call space-time itself - is in the deepest sense a derivative of experimentally deduced answers to yes/no questions that is, to bits. If we allow ourselves for a moment to go back to the roots of what it is that we by convention call reality, we see that it is something that is literally defined by a particular sequence of yes/no responses elicited from either a mechanical or (our own biological) sensory apparatus in other words, reality s origin is fundamentally information-theoretic. 

While the mechanical performance of artificial materials in the human body can be predicted with some rehabihty, forecasting their biological performance is difficnlt. The problem of interactions at surfaces has already been mentioned. Research frontiers also include developing ways to simulate in vivo processes in vitro and extending the power and apphcability of such simulations to allow for better prediction of the performance of biomedical materials and devices in the patient. Fundamental information on the correlation between the in vivo and in vitro responses is limited. Chemical engineers might also make contribntions to the problem of noninvasive monitoring of implanted materials. 

Confounded reactors are likely to stay confounded. Data correlations can produce excellent fits and can be useful for predicting the response of the particular system on which the measurements were made to modest changes in operating conditions. They are unlikely to produce any fundamental information regarding the reaction rate, and have very limited utility in scaleup calculations. 

An important by-product of the development of this approach is that Orthogonal Chromatography provides a direct method of estimating the shape of the chromatogram for extremely narrow molecular weight distributions. This shape function is fundamental information for axial dispersion evaluation and is not otherwise easily obtained. Even commercially available monodisperse standards synthesized by anionic polymerization are too polydisperse. 

The contribution of near-field microscopy is not limited to studies on plasmon-based nanomaterials, but may also provide valuable fundamental information on novel functions of various nanomaterials. 

Metal-catalyzed additions of P(III)-H and P(V)-H bonds to unsaturated substrates have been studied much less than related additions of, for example, B-H or Si-H bonds [36]. Already, some synthetically useful processes have been developed, and further work is likely to produce additional useful transformations as well as more fundamental information on the mechanisms of these reactions. 

The reduction of O2 in W by hydroquinone derivatives (QH2) in O is a subject of interest, since the reaction might offer the fundamental information on the electron transport coupled with the proton transport at a biomembrane realized by the respiration [2,3,56]. 

The oscillations observed with artificial membranes, such as thick liquid membranes, lipid-doped filter, or bilayer lipid membranes indicate that the oscillation can occur even in the absence of the channel protein. The oscillations at artificial membranes are expected to provide fundamental information useful in elucidating the oscillation processes in living membrane systems. Since the oscillations may be attributed to the coupling occurring among interfacial charge transfer, interfacial adsorption, mass transfer, and chemical reactions, the processes are presumed to be simpler than the oscillation in biomembranes. Even in artificial oscillation systems, elementary reactions for the oscillation which have been verified experimentally are very few. 

The electrical oscillations at the aqueous-organic interface or at membranes in the absence of any substances relative to the channel or gate were introduced. These oscillations might give some fundamental information on the electrical excitability in living organisms. Since the ion transfer at the aqueous-organic or aqueous-membrane interface and the interfacial adsorption are deeply concerned in the oscillation, it has been stressed that the voltammetry for the ion transfer at an interface of two immiscible electrolyte solutions is... 

Although very detailed, fundamental information is available from ultrafast TRIR methods, significant expertise in femtosecond/picosecond spectroscopy is required to conduct such experiments. TRIR spectroscopy on the nanosecond or slower timescale is a more straightforward experiment. Here, mainly two alternatives exist step-scan FTIR spectroscopy and conventional pump-probe dispersive TRIR spectroscopy, each with their own strengths and weaknesses. Commercial instruments for each of these approaches are currently available. 

The following representative examples of TRIR studies are not meant to be an exhaustive treatment of the various organic reactive intermediates that have been investigated by TRIR methods, but rather to demonstrate the unique insight that such studies can provide. The direct observation of organic intermediates in solution at room temperature by IR spectroscopy can reveal fundamental information related both to bonding and structure of reactive intermediates as well to mechanisms of product formation. 

Mechanistic insight is a key to both discovery of new reactions and to their successful utilization in specific applications. Use of reactions in a synthetic context often entails optimization of reaction conditions based on mechanistic interpretations. Part A of this text provides fundamental information about the reactions discussed here. Although these mechanistic concepts may be recapitulated briefly in Part B, the details may not be included where appropriate, reference is made to relevant sections in Part A. In addition to experimental mechanistic studies, many reactions of... 

The host of new synthetic organic pesticides presents a variety of problems to the practicing physician because of the lack of basic fundamental information on these chemicals. The American Medical Association has organized a committee on pesticides to consider the following problems of economic poisons and to coordinate information and make it available to physicians and other interested persons or groups safe standards of use, development of prophylactic and antidotal measures, voluntary industry controls, standardization of nomenclature, and professional and public education. 

Equation (7.30) shows that the fundamental information on recombination kinetics is contained in the solution of the scavenger-free case, from which the recombination kinetics with a scavenger may be obtained via an exponential transformation. The scavenger reaction probability is now given by... 

Usually we talk about reactions in solution, but recently techniques have been developed to follow reactions that occur in a vacuum when a stream of reactant A and a stream of reactant B cross each other in a defined direction, as with molecular beams. From the direction in which the products are ejected and their energies, much fundamental information can be deduced about the details of the molecular processes. Lasers, which emit light-energy in a highly focused beam, are sometimes used to put energy into one of the reactants in a defined way. Such a technique reveals less about the nature of the transition state than about what is called the dynamics of the process—how molecules collide so as to react, and how the products carry away the energy of the overall reaction. The development and application of such techniques were recognized by a Nobel Prize in 1986 to Dudley Herschbach, Yuan Lee, and John Polanyi. 

Since there is no sharp boundary line between fact and theory, it is proper for the reader to be skeptical even of some of the facts in this moderately skeptical book. Some of them have been included for their interest and importance if true, rather than from a conviction of their truth. The reader will also note and perhaps help to close some rather alarming gaps in our fundamental information about ions and radicals, especially in quantitative information. The strength of the methods so ably applied by our predecessors has lain in the continuous confrontation of theory with experiment. It is not at all likely that we have reached a stage where we can afford to rely on either theory or experiment alone to the neglect of the other. 

A miniaturized MB spectrometer MIMOS II was developed for the robotic exploration of Mars, where it provided fundamental information about mineralogical composition and alteration processes, helped to classify rocks and soils, aided geologic mapping, was instrumental in assessing habitability of past and present environments, and identified potential construction resources for future human explorers. The applicability of the instrument as a process monitor for oxygen production and prospecting tool for lunar ISRU has been demonstrated. The characterization of air pollution sources and the study of mixed-valence materials as a function of depth in soil are examples of terrestrial in situ applications. MIMOS lla with additional XRF capability will open up new applications. 

Even though these experiments subsequently proved of little value in determining the optical purity of the resulting dipeptides, they did provide useful fundamental information. Results given here (59, 24) have not been published previously. Experiments were carried out using facilities previously used by Tasker (19, see also Section VIII). 

Phosphonic and Phosphinic Acids and their Derivatives.—Further fundamental information on important reactions for preparing phosphonic acid derivatives has... 

MS has proven to be a unique technique, since ionic reactions can be studied under strictly controlled conditions—even collision-tree conditions can be achieved. Thus, MS may provide fundamental information on highly reactive systems. 

At the beginning of the last century, electrochemical production of chlorine became important as compared with the chemical methods used in industry [36], The electrolytic evolution and dissolution of chlorine on graphite electrodes has been studied to obtain fundamental information about its mechanism. 

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