For Material Analysis

Nuclear reaction analysis has mostly been applied to problems in material science, where the use of isotopically enriched compounds allows the profile of a specific element to be targeted by ion beam reactions with its isotopes. For example, in the thermal oxidation of silicon, the growth kinetics and diffusion of oxygen across the Si/Si02 interface region has been studied using sequential oxidations in natural and 0 enriched oxygen gas. The differentiation between possible pathways is due to the isotopic specificity of the NRA technique. 

Walker et al. (2000) used (d, p) and (d, a) nuclear reactions for quantitative analysis of silicon oxynitride films on silicon. They found that under optimum 

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As stated earlier, the major use of UPS is not for materials analysis purposes but for electronic structure studies. There are analysis capabilities, however. We will consider these in two parts those involving the electron valence energy levels and those involving low-lying core levels accessible to UPS photon energies (including synchrotron sources). Then we will answer the question why use UPS if XPS is available ... 

In principle all the X-ray emission methods can give chemical state information from small shifts and line shape changes (cf, XPS and AES in Chapter 5). Though done for molecular studies to derive electronic structure information, this type of work is rarely done for materials analysis. The reasons are the instrumental resolution of commercial systems is not adequate and the emission lines routinely used for elemental analysis are often not those most useftil for chemical shift meas-ure-ments. The latter generally involve shallower levels (narrower natural line widths), meaning longer wavelength (softer) X-ray emission. 

Photoluminescence is a well-established and widely practiced tool for materials analysis. In the context of surface and microanalysis, PL is applied mostly qualitatively or semiquantitatively to exploit the correlation between the structure and composition of a material system and its electronic states and their lifetimes, and to identify the presence and type of trace chemicals, impurities, and defects. 

J. R. fiiid and J. S. Williams. Ion Beams for Materials Analysis. Academic Press, Australia, 1989. Chapter 3 provides an overview of RfiS, while Chapter 6 reviews channeling techniques. This book also reviews NRA PIXE, SIMS, and other related ion-beam analyses. 

Ion Beam Handbook for Material Analysis. (J. W. Mayer and E. Rimini, eds.) Academic Press, New York, 1977. This book provides useful tabular and graphic data for RBS, channeling, PIXE, and NRA. 

Silvery, artificial element generated by beta decay from a plutonium isotope (239Pu). Chemically similar to gadolinium. Like Eu and Gd, Am and Cm are difficult to separate. It can be produced in kilogram amounts. The most common isotope is 244Cm with a half-life of 18.1 years. Is used for thermoelectric nuclide batteries in satellites and pacemakers. It is strongly radioactive and hence also suitable for material analysis. 

Ion induced nuclear reactions for light element analysis in general and hydrogen analysis in particular have been extensively discussed in the literature. Only a few ion-induced nuclear reactions have cross sections large enough to be useful for materials analysis, and these are listed in published compilations (Amsel et al., 1971 Mayer and Rimini, 1977). 

General. We have studied the characterization of multicomponent materials by combining modem analytical instrumentation with a commercially available AI expert system development tool. Information generated from selected analytical databases may be accessed using TIMM, ( The Intelligent Machine Model, ) available from General Research Corp., McLean, VA. This Fortran expert system shell has enabled development of EXMAT, a heuristically-1inked network of expert systems for materials analysis. 

EXMAT - A Linked Network of Expert Systems for Materials Analysis. Seven individual expert systems comprise EXMAT (1) problem definition and analytical strategy (2) instrumental configuration and conditions (3) data generation (4) chemometric/search algorithms (5) results (6) interpretation (7) analytical goals. Dynamic headspace (DHS)/GC and pyrolysis GC (PGC)/concentrators... 

A LINKED NETWORK OF EXPERT SYSTEMS FOR MATERIAL ANALYSIS... 

Mayer, J.W. Rimini, E., Eds. "Ion Beam Handbook for Material Analysis" Academic Press, New York, NY, 1977. 

J. M. Mayer and E. Remini, Ion Beam Handbook for Materials Analysis, Academic Press, New York, 1977. 

A typical spatial-scanning SI system for material analysis and classification is shown in Fig. 7.2. The instrument consists of several components ... 

Table 7.1 Technical data of a typical industrial real-time spectroscopic imaging system for material analysis and sorting (SI system - technical data)...

Discriminant classifiers. The two most important discriminant classifiers for material analysis using spectroscopic imaging systems are the Fisher linear discriminant classifier (FLDC) and the quadratic discriminant classifier (QDC). Other classfiers, such as the classical linear disriminant classifier (LDC), have frequently exhibited an inferior performance. 

The oldest microscopy technique for materials analysis was optical microscopy. Even to this day, for feature sizes above 1 pm, this is one of the most popular tools. For smaller features, electron microscopy techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) are the tools of choice. A third family of microscopy includes scanning probe tools such as scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). In these relatively recent techniques, sample preparation concerns are of minor importance compared to other problems, such as vibration isolation and processing of atomically sharp probes. Therefore, the latter techniques are not discussed here. This chapter is aimed at introducing the user to general specimen preparation steps involved in optical and electron microscopy [3 7], which to date are the most common... 

J.R. Bird and J.S. Williams, Ion Beams for Materials Analysis , Academic Press/Harcourt Brace Jovano-vich Publishers (1989). 

Inorganic membranes can function as the capturing medium of clays, soils and other particulate contaminants in fluids. The inorganic membranes, such as silver membranes, containing the deposit of the contaminants or minerals are then used as the X-ray diffraction (XRD) substrate for material analysis of the particulates. In some cases, they are part of the established test procedures as a National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) standard XRD substrate. 

As mentioned in Chapter 6, some ceramic and metal membranes can have duel uses in some X-ray diffraction analysis for liquids or dispersions. Using the same concept, one can utilize, for example, a molccularly bonded silver membrane in the analysis of particulate contaminants in the air. The membrane with the deposit of the contaminants also serve as the X-ray diffraction (XRD) substrate for material analysis of the... 

Another behaviour of light-matter interaction is photoabsorption in which the photon is annihilated and its energy is used to excite the system. Synchrotron X-ray absorption provides a number of useful techniques for materials analysis and fabrication. 

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