External reference pricing

Emission spectroscopy (e.g., ICP-AES, ICP-CATS, or ICP-MS) techniques are moving to the forefront of copper determination after the instruments became available at affordable prices during the 1990s. Today, ICP-MS has reached detection limits of 5 to 50 ng Cu which renders ICP-MS compatible with ASV and CSV methods for copper determination (Lu et al. 1993). The advantages of ICP-MS include simultaneous determination of the sample multi-element profile and the assessment of isotopic species. All the measures available should be taken to prevent external contamination of the samples blanks and certified reference materials (CRMs) are the condi-... 

It is perhaps also useful to mention the distinction between use data and unit costs (prices). The latter are largely determined by external economic factors and are not an intrinsic feature of the drug. For example, even if, as is in practice unlikely, the most important element in the price of a drug is the cost of manufacture, it is conceivable that this will reduce over time due to economies of scale, improved production methods, simpler syntheses and so forth. On the other hand, the speed with which a curative treatment will affect a cure, which also has an important effect on costs, is more likely to be a permanent quality of the treatment. In the discussion which follows we shall generally refer to costs without making this distinction, using the terms use costs and unit costs where such distinction is Important. 

A regime of external conditions e has to be defined and integrated in the simulation model. This is referred to as a scenario. In common sense, a scenario comprises both, stochastic processes reflecting environmental conditions and the general structure of the modelled system. Typically, the focus of simulation is on the internal processes of a supply chain under a more or less specific environmental regime. E.g. in chemical industry an SC s revenues depend mainly on product prices that can be realized. Due to the highly competitive market for basic chemicals and the inflexibihty of (continuous) production processes in combination with immense capital commitment for production plants, the focus for optimization is on the internal processes of a chemical supply chain. 

Synthetic convertible notes are securities with fixed coupons, typically set at a relatively low level, whose total return is linked to an external source, such as the level of an equity index or the price of a specific security. In one common structure, the note is redeemable above par if the reference index or security value exceeds a stated minimum. The notes thus give investors the opportunity to profit from the benchmarks performance while providing the safety net of redemption at par should this performance fall short. Another typical synthetic convertible structure is the zero-coupon note. These notes are issued at par and redeemable at par, or higher, if a specified equity index performs better than a stated level. 

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Despite the accuracy, which is achievable with the reference value method, it should be borne in mind that this is both very much dependent on the structural comparison of the molds and on general market influences on pricing. By comparing the data with post-calculations, external influences can, however, be filtered and the accuracy can still be further improved. 

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