Evidence types

Abstract Planet formation is a very complex process through which initially submicron-sized dust grains evolve into rocky, icy, and giant planets. The physical growth is accompanied by chemical, isotopic, and thermal evolution of the disk material, processes important to understanding how the initial conditions determine the properties of the forming planetary systems. Here we review the principal stages of planet formation and briefly introduce key concepts and evidence types available to constrain these. 

Evidently type-B hydrogen bonding by the amine protons to HBA bases increases the nucleophilicity of the p-toluidine, and hence the reactivity with the phenyl isocyanate. 

Singh, R.B. Evidence Type Paint and Glass. 12th Interpol Forensic Science Symposium Lyon France, 1988. 

Bertino, Anthony J., and Patricia N. Bertino. Forensic Science Fundamentals and Investigations. Mason, Ohio South-Western Cengage Learning, 2009. Examines the tests and techniques used for the scientific analysis of various evidence types, including hairs and fibers, DNA, handwriting, and soil. 

In theory, S5.2 is specialized particularly in connecting a safety claim with evidence result assertions [2], a proposition that can be made from the source data of safety evidence and can be used to support domain claims in safety arguments. In reality, many safety cases are not presented with evidence result assertions, unless the author wants to highlight the evidence types to be relied upon. For example, Argument by proof using automated theorem provers [lI. ... 

We should prepare answers for the following questions if we think about using this strategy during argument development. Is there an item of evidence directly support the claim Is the type of evidence relevant to the claim Is there any other type of evidence that may support the claim Is it necessary to have several types of evidence Can the branch of argument be closed with evidence presented If one or more evidence types are chosen, what kind of confidence argument should be considered ... 

This RQ aims to understand the expert s decision-making process. It attempts to identify the various factors and criteria for individual evidence types that influence the confidence of the expert. The key challenge here would be to identify through systematic examination the specific questions to establish the underlying belief functions in ER. Different evidence types are likely to have specific factors that influence the expert s confidence and these needs to be identified. An initial attempt to answer this RQ was through interviews with experts [10]. 

There are cases where nmie of the specimens failed (type C, or capable, data), where failure is derived by structural analysis (type D data), where expert opinion is used (type E), or where Bayesian updating is used to update an existing fragility function with new evidence (type U). For such situations, see Porter et al. (2007). 

Two further examples of type I ternary systems are shown in Figure 19 which presents calculated and observed selectivities. For successful extraction, selectivity is often a more important index than the distribution coefficient. Calculations are shown for the case where binary data alone are used and where binary data are used together with a single ternary tie line. It is evident that calculated selectivities are substantially improved by including limited ternary tie-line data in data reduction. 

The kinetics of this type of polymerization are the same as for simple condensation for this reason, the use of the term polycondensation is perhaps more appropriate. Unless kinetic evidence suggests otherwise, polymerizations involving the formation of chain polymers from cyclic compounds, following ring scission, are classed as condensation polymerizations. Some important con-... 

Separation of families by merely increasing the resolution evidently can not be used when the two chemical families have the same molecular formula. This is particularly true for naphthenes and olefins of the formula, C H2 , which also happen to have very similar fragmentation patterns. Resolution of these two molecular types is one of the problems not yet solved by mass spectrometry, despite the efforts of numerous laboratories motivated by the refiner s major interest in being able to make the distinction. Olefins are in fact abundantly present in the products from conversion processes. 

Certain types of equipment are specifically excluded from the scope of the directive. It is self-evident that equipment which is already regulated at Union level with respect to the pressure risk by other directives had to be excluded. That is the case with simple pressure vessels, transportable pressure equipment, aerosols and motor vehicles. Other equipment, such as carbonated drink containers or radiators and piping for hot water systems are excluded from the scope because of the limited risk involved. Also excluded are products which are subject to a minor pressure risk which are covered by the directives on machinery, lifts, low voltage, medical devices, gas appliances and on explosive atmospheres. A further and last group of exclusions refers to equipment which presents a significant pressure risk, but for which neither the free circulation aspect nor the safety aspect necessitated their inclusion. 

The following discussion of wastage profiles is a result of observations made during many years of inspection. The classifications have been kept relatively broad as many permutations of these basic classes have been observed. It is also nor uncommon for two types of wastage profile to be evident on the same tube. 

Qualitative examples abound. Perfect crystals of sodium carbonate, sulfate, or phosphate may be kept for years without efflorescing, although if scratched, they begin to do so immediately. Too strongly heated or burned lime or plaster of Paris takes up the first traces of water only with difficulty. Reactions of this type tend to be autocat-alytic. The initial rate is slow, due to the absence of the necessary linear interface, but the rate accelerates as more and more product is formed. See Refs. 147-153 for other examples. Ruckenstein [154] has discussed a kinetic model based on nucleation theory. There is certainly evidence that patches of product may be present, as in the oxidation of Mo(lOO) surfaces [155], and that surface defects are important [156]. There may be catalysis thus reaction VII-27 is catalyzed by water vapor [157]. A topotactic reaction is one where the product or products retain the external crystalline shape of the reactant crystal [158]. More often, however, there is a complicated morphology with pitting, cracking, and pore formation, as with calcium carbonate [159]. 

If a surface, typically a metal surface, is irradiated with a probe beam of photons, electrons, or ions (usually positive ions), one generally finds that photons, electrons, and ions are produced in various combinations. A particular method consists of using a particular type of probe beam and detecting a particular type of produced species. The method becomes a spectroscopic one if the intensity or efficiency of the phenomenon is studied as a function of the energy of the produced species at constant probe beam energy, or vice versa. Quite a few combinations are possible, as is evident from the listing in Table VIII-1, and only a few are considered here. 

Deposited monolayers of such RX-type compounds as fatty acids and amines can be extremely tenaciously held, as evident for example, in frictional wear experiments (see Section XII-7) and in their stability against evaporation under... 

As is made evident in the next section, there is no sharp dividing line between these two types of adsorption, although the extremes are easily distinguishable. It is true that most of the experimental work has tended to cluster at these extremes, but this is more a reflection of practical interests and of human nature than of anything else. At any rate, although this chapter is ostensibly devoted to physical adsorption, much of the material can be applied to chemisorption as well. For the moment, we do assume that the adsorption process is reversible in the sense that equilibrium is reached and that on desorption the adsorbate is recovered unchanged. 

Different types of chemisorption sites may be observed, each with a characteristic A value. Several adsorbed states appear to exist for CO chemisorbed on tungsten, as noted. These states of chemisorption probably have to do with different types of chemisorption bonding, maybe involving different types of surface sites. Much of the evidence has come initially from desorption studies, discussed immediately following. 

Castets V, Dulos E, Boissonade J and De Kepper P 1990 Experimental evidence of a sustained standing Turing-type nonequilibrium structure Rhys. Rev. Lett. 64 2953-6... 

Discuss the types of bonding that hold atoms and ions together in molecules and crystals. Include in your answer evidence for the existence of the bonds that you describe, and some indication of their relative strength. 

There is increasing evidence that the ionisation of the organic indicators of the same type, and previously thought to behave similarly, depends to some degree on their specific structures, thereby diminishing the generality of the derived scales of acidity. In the present case, the assumption that nitric acid behaves like organic indicators must be open to doubt. However, the and /fp scales are so different, and the correspondence of the acidity-dependence of nitration with so much better than with Hg, that the effectiveness of the nitronium ion is firmly established. The relationship between rates of nitration and was subsequently shown to hold up to about 82 % sulphuric acid for nitrobenzene, />-chloronitrobenzene, phenyltrimethylammonium ion, and p-tolyltrimethylammonium ion, and for various other compounds. ... 

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