Essential regulation

The adrenergic system is an essential regulator that increases cardiovascular and metabolic capacity during situations ofstress, exercise, and disease. Nerve cells in the central and peripheral nervous system synthesize and secrete the neurotransmitters noradrenaline and adrenaline. In the peripheral nervous system, noradrenaline and adrenaline are released from two different sites noradrenaline is the principal neurotransmitter of sympathetic neurons that innervate many organs and tissues. In contrast, adrenaline, and to a lesser degree noradrenaline, is produced and secreted from the adrenal gland into the circulation (Fig. 1). Thus, the actions of noradrenaline are mostly restricted to the sites of release from sympathetic nerves, whereas adrenaline acts as a hormone to stimulate many different cells via the blood stream. 

While the rate limiting step of the cascade is the renin release, the biological active component is the octapeptide angiotensin n. It is an essential regulator of fluid and electrolyte balance as well as blood pressure. It exerts its actions on various structures like blood vessels, adrenal cortex, kidney and central nervous system. Although at least two different receptor subtypes for angiotensin II have been identified (ATi and AT2) the ATi-subtype is responsible for most of the cardiovascular effects of the agonist. 

Wang H M, Ochani M, Amelia CA, Tanovic M, Susaria S, Li JH, Wang H, Yang H, IJlloa L, Al-Abed Y, Czura CJ, Tracey KJ. 2003. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor a7 subunit is an essential regulator of inflammation. Nature 421 384-388. 

Mitochondria play a central role in a variety of biological processes, including ATP synthesis, steroid hormone synthesis, the urea cycle, lipid and amino acid metabolism, and cellular Ca2+ homeostasis. Ca2+ is an essential regulator of vital processes, such as secretion, motility, metabolic control, synaptic plasticity, proliferation, gene expression and apoptosis. Therefore, the location, amplitude,... 

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is an 84-amino acid polypeptide hormone that mediates bone remodeling and is an essential regulator of calcium homeostasis. Prolonged exposure to PTH changes the phenotype of the osteoblast from a cell involved in bone formation to one directing bone... 

M. Henriksson and B. Luscher. Proteins of the Myc network essential regulators of cell growth and differentiation. Adv Cancer Res, 68, 109-182, 1996. 

Serrano, A.L., Baeza-Raja, B., Perdiguero, E., Jardi, M., Munoz-Canoves, P. (2008). Interleukin-6 is an essential regulator of satellite cell-mediated skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Cell Metab. 7 33-44. 

Bamburg JR. Proteins of the ADF/cofilin family essential regulators of actin dynamics. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 1999 15 185 230. 

Several of the proteins with parvulin domains seem to be involved in protein maturation, particularly of secreted proteins, and it has been suggested that mutations cause misfolding and defects in the function of other proteins. The SurA protein is located in the periplasm of E. coli and participates in early stages of the maturation of proteins of the outer membrane (Lazar and Kolter, 1996 Rouviere and Gross, 1996 Wild et al., 1996). SurA is also involved in the pathway that signals the accumulation of unfolded proteins from the periplasm to the cytoplasm (Missiakas and Raina, 1997). Pinl is an essential regulator protein of the cell cycle (Hunter, 1998). The possible functions of SurA and Pinl are further discussed in Section XI. 

Another global neuroproteomic study carried out by Collins et al, (unpublished results) focused on the neurophosphoproteome, i.e. the collection of phosphoproteins at the synapse. Protein phosphoiylation is an essential regulator of protein function and signaling mechanisms in any biological system. It has been estimated that one third of all proteins are phosphorylated in the mammalian cell and if it is assumed that one third of all proteins are expressed in the brain, then a conservative estimate of the number of phosphoproteins expressed in the brain would be in the order of... 

Clark, E. S., Whigham, A. S., Yarbrough, W. G., and Weaver, A. M. (2007) Cortactin is an essential regulator of matrix metalloproteinase secretion and extracellular matrix degradation in invadopodia. Caneer Res. 67, 4227H235. 

Tang DG, Chen YQ, Honn KV (1996) Arachidonate lipoxygenases as essential regulators of ceh survival and apoptosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93 5241-5246... 

Asselin-Labat ML, Sutherland KD, Barker H, Thomas R, Shackleton M, Forrest NC, Hartley L, Robb L, Grosveld FG, van der Wees J, Lindeman GJ, Visvader JE. Gata-3 is an essential regulator of mammary-gland morphogenesis and luminal-cell differentiation. Nat Cell Biol 2007 9 201-209. 

Kim, C. and Dinauer, M.C. (2001). Rac2 is an essential regulator of neutrophil nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase activation in response to specific signaling pathways./. Immunol. 166,1223-1232. 

As bromate is stable once generated, attention is being paid to effluents and wastewaters treated by ozonation. Bromide-containing effluents will contribute to the rise of bromate levels in receiving water bodies which are subsequently used as a source for drinking waters. This calls for essential regulation of bromide and bromate in effluents and wastewaters prior to final discharge. 

Tang, D.G., Chen, Y.Q.. and Honn, K.V. (1996) Arachidonate Lipoxygenases as Essential Regulators of Cell Survival and Apoptosis, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93,5241-5246. 

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