Environmental effects of lead

The environmental effects of lead had been almost all from auto exhaust, but these effects have decreased considerably since 1973, when unleaded gasoline became available. Gasoline in the United States now has almost no lead in it, but on a global scale, about 105 t/year of lead enters the atmosphere, mostly from the use of leaded gasoline. The lead concentrations in the atmosphere are now about 0.1 pg/m3 in rural areas and up to about 0.6 pg/m3 in urban areas. The human dietary intake is now about 0.2 mg/day in the United States, which is not a problem. 

Health and Environmental Effects of Lead and Other Commonly Used Elements in Microelectronics... 

For an excellent, comprehensive review of the chemistry, environmental, and anthropogenic release, environmental fate, and environmental and human health effects of lead, see Air Quality Criteria for Eead, Vol. I—IV, EPA-600/8-83/028a-dF, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., June 1986, -Msd Air Quality Criteria for Eead Supplement to the 1986 Addendum, EPA-600/8-89/049F, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., Aug. 1990. 

Geller AM Health Effects Research Laboratory, Research, Triangle Park, NC The mechanisms, location, and severity of the effects of lead exposure on the mammalian retina National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences... 

Gray LC University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX The effects of lead and carbon disulfide on the measurement of cognitive and sensory function (chick model) National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences... 

Smith D University of California, Santa Cruz, CA Factors contributing to increased lead exposures in postmenopausal females, and the effects of lead on the aged skeleton National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences... 

Koller LD. 1985. Immunological effects of lead. In Mahaffey KR, ed. Dietary and environmental lead Human health effects. Amsterdam, The Netherlands Elsevier Publishers B.V. 

Lisiewicz J, Moszczynski P. 1986. [Effects of lead on the hemopoietic system with special regard to the environmental and occupational exposure.] Postepy Hig Med Dosw 40 45-79. (Russian)... 

Winneke G, Collet W, Lilienthal H. 1988. The effects of lead in laboratory animals and environmentally exposed children. Toxicology 49 291-298. 

This review describes factors concerning the safety and environmental effects of organic germanium, tin and lead compounds. The factors involve the production and use of the elements, alkylation, degradation, toxicity, health effect assessment and so on. 

Young children are especially susceptible to the effects of environmental lead, first because their bodies accumulate lead more readily than do those of adults and, second, because they appear to be more vulnerable to certain of the biological effects of lead. In 1988 the US Public Health Service estimated that, in the United States alone, 12 million children were exposed to leaded paint, 5.6 million to leaded gasoline, 5.9-11 million to dusts and soils containing excessive lead, 10.4 million to lead in water (in part because of lead in pipe solders) and 1.0 million to lead in food. The Public Health Service also... 

The term heavy metal refers to any metallic chemical element that has a relatively high density (nsnally specific density of more than 5 g/mL) and is toxic or poisonous at low concentrations. Examples of heavy metals include arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), and thallium (Tl). The sources, uses, and environmental effects of several exemplary specific metals are discussed briefly here. 

Gamble J, et al Epidemiological-environmental study of lead acid battery workers. HI. Chronic effects of sulfuric acid on the respiratory system and teeth. Environ Res 35 30-52, 1984... 

Epidemiologic, experimental, and in vitro mechanistic data indicate that lead exposure elevates blood pressure in susceptible individuals. In populations with environmental or occupational lead exposure, blood lead concentration is linked with increases in systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Studies of middle-aged and elderly men and women have identified relatively low levels of lead exposure sustained by the general population to be an independent risk factor for hypertension. In addition, epidemiologic studies suggest that low to moderate levels of lead exposure are risk factors for increased cardiovascular mortality. Lead can also elevate blood pressure in experimental animals. The pressor effect of lead may be mediated by an interaction with calcium mediated contraction of vascular smooth muscle, as well as generation of oxidative stress and an associated interference in nitric oxide signaling pathways. 

DNA damage in children environmentally exposed to lead with assessment of individual susceptibility to toxic effect of lead, and genetic polymorphism of lead biotransformation and mechanism of DNA repair Study will assess role of lead exposure in cytogenetic damage in children (European Commission 2004). 

ILs are also attractive candidates for replacing volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as solvents, because they have practically no vapor pressure [165]. However, the environmental impact of ILs and VOCs should be compared on the basis of life-cycle analysis, and for that we are still missing many data on the toxicity and environmental effects of I Ls [ 166,167]. Another point is that the current prices of I Ls are much higher than those of VOCs. Handy et al. recently demonstrated a handy synthesis of mim-type ILs starting from fructose, which could eventually lead to truly eco-friendly IL solvents [168]. 

These exposures may sometimes have long-term effects, not least on children. For instance, reduced birth weights or birth lengths have been associated with environmental levels of bisphenol A (NTP-CERHR 2008), PFOA (Fei et al. 2008), phthalates (Latini et al. 2003) and others (IFCS 2003a), and effects on the central nervous system that may lead to effects on intelligence or behaviour (IFCS 2003a) have been associated with environmental levels of lead, mercury and PCBs. 

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