Electricity solar electric generation

If possible comparisons are focused on energy systems, nuclear power safety is also estimated to be superior to all electricity generation methods except for natural gas (30). Figure 3 is a plot of that comparison in terms of estimated total deaths to workers and the pubHc and includes deaths associated with secondary processes in the entire fuel cycle. The poorer safety record of the alternatives to nuclear power can be attributed to fataUties in transportation, where comparatively enormous amounts of fossil fuel transport are involved. Continuous or daily refueling of fossil fuel plants is required as compared to refueling a nuclear plant from a few tmckloads only once over a period of one to two years. This disadvantage appHes to solar and wind as well because of the necessary assumption that their backup power in periods of no or Httie wind or sun is from fossil-fuel generation. Now death or serious injury has resulted from radiation exposure from commercial nuclear power plants in the United States (31). 

Three main types of concentrating collectors have evolved for use in solar thermal systems low concentration paraboHc troughs, high concentration parabohc dishes, and central receivers (Fig. 3). Higher concentration produces higher temperatures in a working fluid and makes electrical generation more efficient. 

As of this writing (1996), 354 MWe of privately funded, paraboHc-trough electric generating capacity was operating in California. These trough systems operate in a hybrid mode, using natural gas. Collectively they accounted for more than 90% of worldwide solar electric capacity. The cost of these systems fell steadily from 0.24/kWh for the first 14-MW system to an estimated 0.08/kWh for the 80-MW plant installed in 1989 (5). 

The most common use of the gas turbine power system in the oil and gas industry is in combination with an electrical system (i.e., electric generators and electric motors). In 1965 such a system was used to power a rotary rig. This was a 3,000-hp rig developed by Continental-Ensco. The rig used three 1,100-hp Solar Saturn single-shaft gas turbines. These gas turbines operated at 22,300 rpm and were connected through double reduction gear transmissions to DC generators. 

Wind, solar thermal, and photovoltaic power together accounted in 1998 for only about 1% of U.S. electricity generation from renewable sources and only about 0.1% ofall electricity (DOE/EIA 1999a). 

The carbon footprint of electricity generation through RES (Renewable Energy Systems) are described in this section. Elydro-electricity is described first, and then wind power, followed by bioenergy systems and solar energy. 

Wind is the motion of air masses caused by the different thermal conditions that occur over the earth s surface as a result of the transmission of solar radiation. Wind energy is defined as the kinetic energy of the wind converted into mechanical work. This mechanical work can be used to drive an electrical generator for the production of electricity. A machine that performs this conversion is called a wind turbine generator (WTG) and a group of these, including the auxiliary equipment, constitute a WF. 

Solar cells, 22 220, 9 729, 23 32. See also Photovoltaic (PV) cells antimony compounds, 3 53-54 dye-sensitized, 26 878 degradation of, 22 139 economics of, 22 140 efficiency of, 23 15 for electricity generation, 23 26 hydrogenated amorphous silicon in, 22 135, 136, 138-139 materials for, 23 14-15 micromorph, 22 140 polymethine dyes in, 20 516-517 silicon for, 22 507-508 silicon purification for, 22 496 stacking, 23 38-39 vitreous silica in, 22 444 Solar collectors, 23 25 Solar constant, 23 2 Solar control coatings, 23 16 Solar desalination, 26 89-94 Solar electricity, 23 51, 52 Solar energy... 

Renewable electricity (RES-E) Electricity generated from renewable non-fossil energy sources, i.e., wind, solar, geothermal, wave, tidal, hydropower, biomass, landfill gas, sewage treatment plant gas and biogas (this corresponds to the definition in Directive 2001/77/EC on renewables, Article 2). 

The water in rivers and streams can be captured and turned into hydropower (HP), also called hydroelectric power. HP currently provides about 17% of the world s electricity supply, virtually all of Norway s electricity and more than 40% of the electricity nsed in developing countries. However, there is great potential in hydropower worldwide. Norway produces more than 99% of its electricity with hydropower. New Zealand nses hydropower for 75% of its electricity. HP provides more than 97% of all electricity generated by renewable sources. Other sources, biomass, geothermal, solar and wind account for less than 3% of renewable electricity production. When the electricity share of total energy consumption is considered, the increase becomes even more dramatic. 

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