Sodium iodide detectors,

Catalogs of experimental measured gamma-ray spectra with both types of detectors, sodium iodide and semiconductor, have been published in the literature. This type of compilation is very useful for the prediction of the suitability of the detector types for a special application. 

Scintillation detectors are substances which fluoresce when stmck by x-radiation. Scintillation can, therefore, serve to convert x-ray photons into visible or ultraviolet light. Scintillation materials include thaUium-activatedcrystals of sodium iodide, NaI(Tl), potassium iodide, KI(T1), or cesium iodide, CsI(Tl) crystals of stilbene (a, P-diphenylethylene) [588-59-0] and anthracene [120-12-7] bismuth germanium oxide [12233-56-6] ... 

To mark the displacement front, 150 ppm of sodium iodide was incorporated in the surfactant micellar slug. This tracer can easily be detected in effluents with a UV detector at 229 nm. 

The equipment used in gamma spectroscopy includes a detector, a pulse sorter (multichannel analyzer), and associated amplifiers and data readout devices. The detector is normally a sodium iodide (Nal) scintillation counter. Figure 27 shows a block diagram of a gamma spectrometer. 

As discussed above, the measurement of characteristic y rays is very similar to the methods used in EDXRF. Early studies used a scintillation counter, typically a crystal of sodium iodide containing a small amount of thallium (Tite 1972). y ray absorption by these counters produces visible light, which is converted into an electrical pulse using a photosensitive detector. More recently semiconductor detectors have been used, either a lithium drifted germanium crystal, or, more typically, a pure ( intrinsic )... 

A range of scintillants is available, many designed for maximum efficiency with specific isotopes. Crystals of sodium iodide containing a small amount of thallous iodide are very efficient detectors of gamma radiation and... 

In a technique known as medical imaging, tracers are used in medicine for the diagnosis of internal disorders. Small amounts of a radioactive material, such as sodium iodide, Nal, which contains the radioactive isotope iodine-131, are administered to a patient and traced through the body with a radiation detector. The result, shown in Figure 4.11, is an image that shows how the material is distributed in the body. This technique works because the path the tracer material takes is influenced only by its physical and chemical properties, not by its radioactivity. The tracer may be introduced alone or along with some other chemical, known as a carrier compound, that helps target the isotope to a particular type of tissue in the body. 

Tracer injection is performed by injecting a suitable tracer via the tracer injector described above and monitoring the output from the vessel by means of a sodium iodide scintillation detector. 

The expts were conducted in stainless steel sigma-blade type mixers with proplnt mixing capacities of 60, 600 and 2000 lbs, respectively. Radioactivity measurements on samples taken from various locations in the batch at different mixing times were performed with a sodium iodide scintillation detector system... 

Alpha-particle detector Beta-particle detector Gamma-ray detector proportional counters silicon (Si) diode with spectrometer proportional counters Geiger-Muller counters liquid scintillation (LS) counters thallium-activated sodium iodide (Nal(Tl) detector with spectrometer germanium (Ge) detector with spectrometer... 

Another commonly used detector is the scintillation detector. This makes use of a crystal that produces a scintillation (pulse of visible light) upon absorption of an x-ray photon. The visible light is detected by a photomultiplier tube and associated amplifier circuit, which is sensitive enough to detect nearly every scintillation. The scintillating crystal is usually sodium iodide doped with an activator such as thallous iodide. 

Solid scintillators include materials such as sodium iodide, lithium iodide, anthracene, naphthalene and loaded polymers. Sodium iodide detectors are by far the most important, and subsequent discussions will be restricted to... 

Scintillation counters usually consist of a sodium iodide crystal doped with 1% thallium. The incident X-ray photons cause the crystal to fluoresce producing a flash of light for every photon absorbed. The size of the light pulse is proportional to the energy of the photon and is measured by a photomultiplier. A deficiency associated with scintillation counters is that they do not provide as good energy resolution as proportional or solid state detectors. 

There are limitations associated with in vivo counting uranium measurements. First, soluble uranium is readily excreted, with fractions retained for varying periods in the bone and kidney, so detectability depends on factors such as intake quantity, chemical and physical form, biodistribution fraction, time since intake, background uranium contribution, analysis time, and detection system efficiency. Second, only the isotope can be detected using the sodium iodide or hyperpure germanium detectors, since... 

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