Detection of virus

B. Konig and M. Gratzel, Detection of viruses and bacteria with piezoimmunosensors. Anal. Lett. 26, 1567-1585 (1993). 

Rapid antigen and point-of-care tests, direct fluorescence antibody test, and the reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction assay may be used for rapid detection of virus. 

The possibility to use the YI sensor for virus detection was explored by monitoring the interaction between a-HSV-1 gG antibody and HSV-1 virus particles. To this end, channel 1 was coated with protein pA as described in Sect. 10.4.2 followed by the immobilization of a a-HSV-1 gG layer on the sensing surface of channel 1. Channel 4 was used as a reference channel. Finally a solution with HSV-1 virus particles at a concentration of 105 particles/ml was added to channel 1. Figure 10.2 shows the phase change measured between channel 1 and reference channel 4, clearly demonstrating the detection of virus particles by the YI sensor (Fig. 10.15). 

For the detection of viruses different SERS approaches are reported. One possibility is the direct detection of the DNA or the protein shell. Additionally, the presence of the DNA can also be detected indirectly via marker molecules. The third possibility is the detection via antibodies [28],... 

The detection of virus in samples using electron microscopy can be enhanced by the use of specific antibodies to trap particles. Antibodies can further be used to label immobilized particles on grids to aid their identification. 

This involves coating or activating a filmed grid with a specific antiserum, loading with an extract of virus-infected material and, finally, staining. The antiserum concentrates the virus particles and markedly increases the amount visible on the treated grid (10). This technique is especially useful for the detection of viruses that may be low in concentration, or restricted to limited areas, within the plant. 

Brussaard CP, Marie D, Bratbak G (2000) Flow cytometric detection of viruses. J Virol Methods 85 175-182 Brussaard CPD (2004) Viral Control of Phytoplankton Populations - a Review. JEukaryot Microbiol 51 125— 138... 

Cockerell GL, Lairmore M, De B, Rovnak J, Hartley TM, Miyoshi I (1990) Persistent infection of rabbits with HTLV-I Patterns of anti-viral antibody reactivity and detection of virus by gene amplification. Int J Cancer 45 127-130. 

Enzyme DNA hybridization assays with electrochemical detection can offer enhanced sensitivity and reduced instrumentation costs in comparison with their optical counterparts. Efforts to prevent non-specific binding of the codissolved enzyme and to avoid fouling problems by selecting conditions suitable to amplify the electrode response have been reported by Heller and co-workers [107]. A disposable electrochemical sensor based on an ion-exchange film-coated screen-printed electrode was described by Limoges and co-workers for an enzyme nucleic acid hybridization assay using alkaline phosphatase [108] or horseradish peroxidase [109]. In another methodology to improve sensitivity, a carbon paste electrode with an immobilized nucleotide on the electrode surface and methylene blue as hybridization indicator was coupled, by Mascini and co-workers [110], with PGR amplification of DNA extracted from human blood for the electrochemical detection of virus. 

Rossi AM, Wang L, Reipa V, Murphy TE (2007) Porous silicon biosensor for detection of viruses. Biosens Bioelectron 23 741-745... 

Limits of detection, using the OFRR for viral particle detection, of 2.3 X 10 pfu/mL have been demonstrated with the M13 virus using antibodies bound to the inside of the capillary with protein A [61]. The circular nature of the capillary enables efficient capture and rapid detection of viruses. The results show that most Ml3 vims capture occurs within 5 min. Meanwhile, given the small volume of fluid inside the 100 pm OD capillary, this may correspond to a signal from only a few vims particles in total. 

Nicoll JAR, Love S, Burton PA, et al. Autopsy findings in two cases of neonatal herpes simplex virus infection detection of virus by immunohistochemistry, in situ hybridization and the polymerase chain reaction. Histopathology. 1994 24 257-264. 

Recently, it has been suggested that viral infections play an important role in cancer or other chronic diseases (Danesh et al., 1997). Evidence for their involvement comes partly from epidemiological studies, focusing on the detection of viruses in (cancer) patients. Herpesviruses, papillomaviruses and hepadnaviruses (Hepatitis B) are all associated with transformation of cells and, along with other factors, initiate oncogenesis (Table 1). CMV has been reported to play a role in artherosclerosis (Persoons et al, 1994). 

Study (Ref. ) Year of Article RRV Detected (Time elapsed from onset of symptoms to detection of virus) Predominant Cell in Infiltrate or Cell Infected (sample examined) Other Laboratory, Clinical, Epidemiology Findings... 

Magnetic ceramic nanoparticles are becoming of increasing interest in a number of areas. One of these areas is using them for the location and detection of viruses a viral nanosensor. The approach is illustrated in Figure... 

Other biomolecules, such as antibodies [175-177], DNA [178-180], etc., have attracted much interest in the development of biosensors useful for detection of viruses and genetically transmitted diseases. Few reports have appeared on immobilisation in conducting polymers. A full range of optical, electrochemical and piezoelectric transduction modes aimed at detecting the base pair hybridisation between the immobilised... 

ELISA or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays originated from the use of enzyme-antibody (eg. horse-radish peroxidase) complexes for immunohistochemistry. The same principles of spectrophotometric measurement have been employed for the measurement of antibodies (eg. Engvall, 1976 Leinikki and Passila, 1975) or the detection of viruses (Voller et al., 1976b). 

Detection of virus multiplication is usually done by observation of the host cell under the microscope for changes in structure or size (cytopathic effect). There are more than 100 types of human viruses that can be present in a water sample and for only a few types a cell-culture method is available that will result in readily observable cytopathic effects. Other viruses will be able to undergo only a limited degree of replication in cell culture and the products of this multiplication (proteins and/or nucleic acids) can be detected in the cell cultures by immunological or molecular methods. These techniques have expanded the range of detectable viruses and they have improved the sensitivity of the assay but, nevertheless, no cell-culture method is presently available for many important waterborne viruses. 

DEAD also increases the cellular uptake of viral RNA by cells in tissue culture by a factor of up to 10 [12]. Thus DEAD can be employed to increase the transfer of immunity by means of immune RNA to non-immune cells and prolong the survival of animals [13]. The ability of a cancer virus to cause tumors in mice can be increased up to 10-fold following administration of DEAD. Hence as a research tool, DEAD may be of use in the detection of viruses with low cancer-causing activity in mice and other species. The recently reported carcinogenicity of DEAD in mice may be due to this mode of action, therefore care should be exercised in the handling of this compound. 

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