Construction stages

During the development and construction stages of a project, Aa and A/r are both zero in Eqs. (9-2) and (9-4). For this period, the cash flow for the project is negative and is given by... 

Consideration of the cash-flow stages in Fig. 9-10 shows the factors that can affecd the (EMIP) and (IRP). if the reqiiired capital investment is increased, it is necessary to increase the rate of income after startup for the (EMIP) to remain the same. In order to have the (EMIP) small, it is necessary to keep the research and development, design, and construction stages short. 

The first stage toward producing an accurate estimate is to use a standard cost code for all construction projects. Table 9-45 shows a suitable numerical cost code, and Table 9-46 shows a typical alphabetical-numerical code. The cost-code system can be used throughout the estimating and construction stages for the collection of cost data by manual or computer methods. There are numerous types of fixed-capital-cost estimates, but in 1958 the American Association of Cost Engineers defined five types as follows ... 

The protection of aluminum ships demands particular attention since electrical contact with steel and copper materials can seldom be avoided and a whole range of aluminum alloys are unsuitable for cathodic protection (see Section 2.4 and Fig. 2-11). Later protective measures must therefore be observed during the construction stage since even good coatings in combination with cathodic protection are frequently not adequate to protect gaps or openings. 

As the process moves from the process development stage to the design and construction stage the chemistry, unit operations, and type of equipment have been set. The design and construction stage needs to focus primarily on equipment specifications, piping and instrumentation design, installation details, and layout for an inherently safer installation. 

Care must also be taken where large live loading are concerned such as gantry cranes, hoists, materials handling, etc. to ensure that structural and safety implications are properly addressed during both design and construction stages. 

Scheme illustrating geotechnical activities at various construction stages required for the pipeline construction... 

The basic position of the temperature probe will be determined in the construction stage of the reactor. The correct function of the actual probes must be checked on a regular basis. The actual temperature may be randomly... 

The feed stocks include naphtha, natural gas liquids, propane and butane. The cost of SNG gas from these plants is as high as 5 to 6 per Mcf. The investment cost is very low for this type of SNG plant and is on the order of 522 per million Btu per day of capacity at a 50% load factor. This can be compared with the investment cost of high-Btu pipeline-gas-from-coal plants which is now on the order of 12,444 per million Btu per day of capacity based on the Lurgi process and 90% load factor. There are two other SNG plants in the planning or construction stage. 

Over the past seven years, a number of groups in the U.S. have announced plans for Lurgi coal gasification commercial projects to produce SNG. However, none of these projects has reached the construction stage. The main reasons for the delays have included problems with government approvals and regulations. Difficulties with environmental clearances, the cost and pricing... 

Pyrolysis as a waste treatment method has made considerable progress during recent years. After laboratory and semi-technical scale testing, several demonstration plants have been set up. Others are in the planning or construction stage. 

The first demonstration of FT-IRM with a synchrotron IR source was made during the early 1990s, when a custom-built IR microscope was installed at the National Synchrotron Light Source (Upton, NY, USA) [16,17], while similar efforts were underway at UVSOR in Japan at the same time [18]. The first commercial IR microscope was installed at the NSLS a few years later [10, 19]. Since then, IR microscopes have been installed on over 15 beamlines at synchrotrons worldwide, and an equal number are currently in the planning or construction stages. 

The design philosophy determines the emphasis placed on controlling corrosion by this means, as opposed to spending resources at the construction stage to prevent corrosion. Planned maintenance should be avoided when maintenance labor costs are high or spares may be difficult to procure. 

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