Chromium essentiality

Ruby Laser. Ruby (essentially alumina) owes its well-known color to the presence of very small proportions of chromium ions (Cr +) distributed through it. Ruby lasers do not use natural rubies because of the imperfections they contain. Instead, synthetic single crystals of chromium... 

C and 19,600 kPa (2800 psi). The catalyst is a complex aluminum—ca dmium —chromium oxide that has high activity and exceptionally long life. The process is claimed to give a conversion of ester to alcohol of about 99% retaining essentially all of the original double bonds. 

Control of chromium penetration, essential to permit tannage of the center of the hide, is accompHshed by pH adjustment. At a pH > 3.0 the reactivity of the hide to the chromium complex is greatiy increased. The pH is therefore raised gradually to the desired point by addition of a mild alkah, usually sodium bicarbonate. The chemistry of chrome tanning involves competing reactions that must be controlled for satisfactory results. 

Because of its position in the Periodic Table, molybdenum has sometimes been linked to chromium (see Chromiumand chromium alloys) or to other heavy metals. However, unlike those elements, molybdenum and its compounds have relatively low toxicity, as shown in Table 3. On the other hand, molybdenum has been identified as a micronutrient essential to plant life (11,12) (see Fertilizers), and plays a principal biochemical role in animal health as a constituent of several important enzyme systems (see Mineral nutrients). 

Processes for HDPE with Broad MWD. Synthesis of HDPE with a relatively high molecular weight and a very broad MWD (broader than that of HDPE prepared with chromium oxide catalysts) can be achieved by two separate approaches. The first is to use mixed catalysts containing two types of active centers with widely different properties (50—55) the second is to employ two or more polymerization reactors in a series. In the second approach, polymerization conditions in each reactor are set drastically differendy in order to produce, within each polymer particle, an essential mixture of macromolecules with vasdy different molecular weights. Special plants, both slurry and gas-phase, can produce such resins (74,91—94). 

Physical and Chemical Properties. Titanium dioxide [13463-67-7] occurs in nature in three crystalline forms anatase [1317-70-0] brookite [12188-41 -9] and mtile [1317-80-2]. These crystals are essentially pure titanium dioxide but contain small amounts of impurities, such as iron, chromium, or vanadium, which darken them. Rutile is the thermodynamically stable form at all temperatures and is one of the two most important ores of titanium. 

Chromium Removal System. Chlorate manufacturers must remove chromium from the chlorate solution as a result of environmental regulations. During crystallization of sodium chlorate, essentially all of the sodium dichromate is recycled back to the electrolyzer. Alternatively, hexavalent chromium, Cr, can be reduced and coprecipitated in an agitated reactor using a choice of reducing agents, eg, sodium sulfide, sulfite, thiosulfate, hydrosulfite, hydrazine, etc. The product is chromium(III) oxide [1333-82-0] (98—106). Ion exchange and solvent extraction techniques have also... 

Chromic Acid Electrolysis. Alternatively, as shown in Figure 1, chromium metal may be produced electrolyticaUy or pyrometaUurgicaUy from chromic acid, CrO, obtained from sodium dichromate by any of several processes. Small amounts of an ionic catalyst, specifically sulfate, chloride, or fluoride, are essential to the electrolytic production of chromium. Fluoride and complex fluoride catalyzed baths have become especially important in recent years. The cell conditions for the chromic acid process are given in Table 7. 

Nutrition. Chromium, in the trivalent oxidation state, is recognized as an essential trace element for human nutrition, and the recommended... 

Chromium is an essential constituent in alloys to be used above 550°C (1,000°F). It provides a tightly adherent oxide film that materially retards the oxidation process. Sihcon is a usebil element in imparting oxidation resistance to steel. It will enhance the beneficial effects of chromium. Also, for a given level of chromium, experience has shown oxidation resistance to improve as the nickel content increases. 

It appears that chromium(III) is an essential trace element in mammalian metabolism and, together with insulin, is responsible for the clearance of glucose from the blood-stream. Tungsten too has been found to have a role in some enzymes converting CO2 into formic acid but, from the point of view of biological activity, the focus of interest in this group is unquestionably on molybdenum. 

Steel is essentially iron with a small amount of carbon. Additional elements are present in small quantities. Contaminants such as sulfur and phosphorus are tolerated at varying levels, depending on the use to which the steel is to be put. Since they are present in the raw material from which the steel is made it is not economic to remove them. Alloying elements such as manganese, silicon, nickel, chromium, molybdenum and vanadium are present at specified levels to improve physical properties such as toughness or corrosion resistance. 

Structure Although massive chromium has a body-centred cubic structure, electrodeposited chromium can exist as two primary modifications, i.e. a-(b.c.c.) and (c.p.h.). The precise conditions under which these forms of chromium can be deposited are not known with certainty. Muro" showed that at 40°C and 2-0-22 A/dm the deposit was essentially a-chromium but small amounts of 0- and 7- were present, while Koch and Hein observed... 

---