Choline hippocampus changes

Kristofikova Z, Benesova 0, Tejkalova H. (1992). Changes in high-affinity choline uptake in the hippocampus of old rats after long-term administration of two nootropic drugs (tacrine and Ginkgo biloba extract). Dementia. 3 304-7. 

It has been demonstrated that the hippocampal cholinergic system is actively involved in stress response. Acute and chronic stress-induced changes in synaptic ACh release and choline uptake (parameter of cholinergic system) have been studied in rat hippocampus. Acute as well as chronic intermittent immobilization stress increased ACh release whereas, choline uptake increased after acute stress and decreased after chronic stress. Repeated cold stress has been shown to decrease the total ACh content in basal ganglia and hypothalamus, whereas its amount increased in the duodenum of rat. Similarly, cold stress resulted in a decrease of ACh levels in the hypothalamus and hippocampus of rat. It has been assumed that the stores of ACh in the hippocampus of a rat that are exposed to stress may become depleted. However, Costa et al. ° and Mizukawa et al. failed to find any change in rat ACh after stress. After electric shock stress, the ACh concentration was found to be depleted in brain regions of rat and mice. Following 2 h of mild restrain stress, choline uptake was increased in hippocampus, septum, and frontal cortex of rat. " The administration of chronic electric shock to rats has increased the ACh content in the medulla. ... 

The older hypothesis in which aluminium was said to be involved in the progress of Alzheimer s disease has generated much controversy [37]. It nevertheless inspired the development of early models for Alzheimer s disease. Intracerebral administration of aluminium in rabbits brings about neurofibrillary degeneration in several brain regions and a decrease of choline acetyl transferase in the striatum, but not in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus where the decrease mostly occurs in Alzheimer s disease [38], no amyloid plaques are formed and few changes in other neurotransmitter systems and behaviour have been reported [39]. 

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