Children, hazards

In 2002, the Bangkok Statement (adopted by over 400 participants) at the WHO International Conference on Environmental Threats to Children Hazards and Vulnerability, in... 

Child Hazard Warning (162.l(Xh)(l)(ii))—The statement Keep out of reach of children must be prominently displayed on the front panel of every pesticide product. Although EPA can waive the requirement, it will do so only when the registrant can demonstrate that the likelihood of contact with children is extremely remote at every stage of the product s life cycle or if, by virtue of its intrinsic characteristics, the pesticide is approved for use on infants or small children. 

The draft guidelines make few changes from existing regulations, except to spell out normal EPA practice, such as the requirement that the child hazard warning appear on a separate line above the signal word. 

PRECAUTIONARY STATEMENTS 7a Keep Out of Reach of Children (Child Hazard Warning)... 

We can expect drastic changes in the food packaging industry. Some will arise from new consumer needs, new or expanded food supplies and products, and new food preservation systems such as aseptic packaging. Others will result from societally based constraints such as safety in health and hazardous use (as in the child safety closure legislation) and consumer protection against fraud, misinformation, or wrongful use where the burden for awareness is no longer on the buyer but on the supplier. Other such constraints will arise from environmental concerns or material scarcities. 

The developing human s source of nutrition changes with age from placental nourishment to breast milk or formula to the diet of older children who eat more of certain types of foods than adults. A child s behavior and lifestyle also influence exposure. Children crawl on the floor, put things in their mouths, sometimes eat inappropriate things (such as dirt or paint chips), and spend more time outdoors. Children also are closer to the ground, and they do not use the judgment of adults to avoid hazards (NRC 1993). 

The ACGIH also notes that if a child s blood lead level remains elevated, the child may be at increased risk of cognitive deficits (ACGIH 1998). The ACGIH has adopted BEIs for various substances. The BEI for a substance is an industrial hygiene reference value to be used in evaluating potential health hazards. 

Amitai Y, Graef JW, Brown MJ, et al. 1987. Hazards of deleading homes of children with lead poisoning. Am J Dis Child 141 758-760. 

In the case of noncarcinogenic substances, there exists a threshold this is an exposure with a dose below which there would not be adverse effect on the population that is exposed. This is the reference dose (RfD), and it is defined as the daily exposure of a human population without appreciable effects during a lifetime. The RfD value is calculated by dividing the no observed effect level (NOEL) by uncertainty factors. When NOEL is unknown, the lowest observed effect level (LOEL) is used. NOEL and LOEL are usually obtained in animal studies. The main uncertainty factor, usually tenfold, used to calculate the RfD are the following the variations in interspecies (from animal test to human), presence of sensitive individuals (child and old people), extrapolation from subchronic to chronic, and the use of LOEL instead of NOEL. Noncancer risk is assessed through the comparison of the dose exposed calculated in the exposure assessment and the RfD. The quotient between both, called in some studies as hazard quotient, is commonly calculated (Eq. 2). According to this equation, population with quotient >1 will be at risk to develop some specific effect related to the contaminant of concern. 

Pediatric patients require other special considerations when prescribing a dmg that requires therapeutic monitoring. Simply obtaining blood samples can be difficult, depending on the age, developmental maturation, and hydration status of the child. In some clinical settings, a lack of personnel comfortable with pediatric phlebotomy makes sample collection even more difficult, or even hazardous. As well, some facilities lack on-site laboratories for... 

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