Caves

A karst structure . e. a limestone formation which has been eroded resulting in a large scale, open system comparable to a cave... 

The dissolution of carbonates can create spectacular features like those found in many caves. The process is termed karstification. Some reservoirs are related to Karst. Examples are the Bohai Bay Field in China or the Nang Nuan oil field in the Gulf of Thailand. These reservoirs are characterised by high initial production from the large open pore system. However, since the Karst features are connected downdip to the waterleg this is usually followed by rapid and substantial water breakthrough. ... 

The solubility of the carbonate in water containing carbon dioxide causes the formation of caves with stalagtites and stalagmites and is responsible for hardness in water. Other important compounds are the carbide, chloride, cyanamide, hypochlorite, nitrate, and sulfide. 

In the eadiest known paintings, the primitive cave paintings, paint was appHed directly onto the cave wall, with tittle or no preparation. As early as the Old Kingdom in ancient Egypt, however, wall surfaces were specially prepared using a coating of plaster. In time, the refinement and complexity of the preparation layers increased until in the Renaissance several layers of different composition and fineness were superimposed. Other preparations used, especially in the Far East, consisted of a clay layer. 

Paint is one of the most common and widely used materials in home and building constmction and decoration (see Building materials). Its broad use comes from its abiHty to provide not only improved appearance and decoration but also protection of a substrate to which it is appHed. Evidence of the historical uses of paint goes back over 25,000 years to cave paintings found in Europe. The Bible describes pitch being used to coat and protect Noah s Ark. Over 10,000 years ago in the Middle East, various minerals and metals such as lime, siHca, copper and iron oxides, and chalk were mixed and reacted to produce many colors. Resins from plant sap and casein were also used. Over 2000 years ago in Asia, resins refined from insect secretions and sap from trees were used to make clear lacquers and varnishes (2). 

Carbon Blacks. Carbon black is one of the oldest pigments known. It was used by prehistoric peoples for painting pictures on cave walls, and commercially produced by the Chinese as early as 3000 BC. 

Roofs are a basic element of shelter from inclement weather. Natural or hewn caves, including those of snow or ice, ate early evidence of human endeavors for protection from the cold, wind, rain, and sun. Nomadic people, before the benefits of agriculture had been discovered and housing schemes developed, depended on the availabiUty of natural materials to constmct shelters. Portable shelters, eg, tents, probably appeared early in history. Later, more permanent stmctures were developed from stone and brick. SaUent features depended strongly on the avadabihty of natural materials. The Babylonians used mud to form bricks and tiles that could be bonded with mortars or natural bitumen. Ancient buildings in Egypt were characterized by massive walls of stone and closely spaced columns that carried stone lintels to support a flat roof, often made of stone slabs. 

HM Chun, CP Padilla, DN Chin, M Watanabe, VI Karlov, EJE Alper, K Soosaar, K Blair, O Becker, LSD Caves, R Nagle, DN Haney, BL Parmer. J Comput Chem 21 159, 2000. 

LSD Caves, JD Evanseck, M Karplus. Locally accessible conformations of proteins Multiple molecular dynamics simulations of crambm. Protein Sci 7 649-666, 1998. 

In the above situation, the walls cave in from the sides, cutting off the void and presenting a new surface to the incoming gas. This sequence is illustrated in Figure 32. The size of the initial bubble resulting from a detached void is typically on the order of about half the penetration depth of the gas jet. Bubbles or gas voids rise in a fluidized bed by being displaced with an inflow of solids from their perimeters. 

Bulging or caving of a duct The maximum deflection that occurs in the sides of a duct due to negative (caving) or positive (bulging) pressure differences. The reference plane is that existing with no pressure difference. 

Mazzarotta, B., Di Cave, S. and Bonifazi, G., 1996. Influence of time on crystal attrition in a stirred vessel. American Institution of Chemical Engineers Journal, 42, 3554-3558. 

Several construction buildings collapsed from the explosion (Figure 2.13). The facade of the factory partially collapsed, the brick wall was partially caved in, and a large number of windows in this wall were shattered. The glass roof of the factory... 

The Flixborough explosion was analyzed on the basis of damage figures presented by Munday and Cave (1975). Assuming a 60,000 kg cyclohexane release, they found a TNT equivalency of 7.8% on the basis of energy, which corresponds with a mass equivalency of 81.7%. These equivalences were calculated on the basis of the full quantity of material released. 

Munday, G., and L. Cave. 1975. Evaluation of blast wave damage from very large unconfined vapor cloud explosions. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna. 

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