Carbonate-containing liquid

We have proposed the method of synthesis of carbon nanostructures and composites on their base by arc discharge in the liquid phase. In this connection the work on production of ultradispersed metal powders by the electroerosion method [1-4] began in the eighties years and still continues today. Besides carbon nanostructures produced by evaporation of carbon electrodes in the liquid phase, there appears a possibility of producing metal-carbon composites by sublimation of metal in the carbon-containing liquid. In this case the metal nanoparticles form with carbon nanostructures on their surface. 

Carbonate-containing liquid electrolytes are primarily chosen for their ability to dissolve lithium salts and their relatively low viscosity (which facilitates Li-ion diffusion between electrodes). Their flammability has in part led to interest in the use of room-temperature ionic liquids (ILs) as replacements. ILs can potentially operate in a higher voltage window relative to carbonates and also have the added benefit of being more thermally stable and having low vapor pressure. The main drawback of this class of compounds is a high viscosity. Additionally, carbonates may have to be introduced at certain voltages to form a suitable SEI for operation. 

Water is the solvent for most of the solutions discussed in this chapter. However, as noted above, many other liquids are also used as solvents. Other than water, most solvents are organic (carbon-containing) liquids. Some of the more important organic solvents are shown in Table 7.1. 

The method just described leads to the mean specific heats over a fairly large range. Nernst, Koref, and Lindemann (1910) have recently described a method of measuring the true specific heat at a given low temperature. The substance is contained in a block of copper cooled to the requisite temperature in liquid carbon dioxide, liquid air, etc., and energy is supplied by a heating spiral of platinum wire carrying an electric current, the measurement of the resistance of which serves at the same time to determine the temperature. 

Carbon containing 3.5% of the oxide explodes on contact with liquid oxygen. 

Although liquid hydrogen, LH2, can be used as a fuel source, much of the recent fuel cell research is focusing on the partial oxidation of methanol, natural gas, ethanol, or gasoline to produce the necessary hydrogen. Catalysts that aid in the partial oxidation of these fuels yields a readily available, rich source of hydrogen. Water is the primary exhaust emission produced by fuel cell powered vehicles. If a carbon-based fuel source is utilized, then a carbon-containing by-product will also be produced. 

Deactivation of catalysts in the reforming of liquid fuels is caused principally by two processes the formation of carbon-containing deposits and sulfur poisoning. This section examines the thermodynamics and the literature dealing with these processes. 

Effect of Aromatics on Formation of Coke and Carbon. Conventional liquid fuels contain widely differing levels of aromatics gasoline usually contains more than diesel. The studies show that these compounds cause more rapid deactivation than linear alkanes alone. A related result is that the steady state conversion of diesel fractions is also reduced in the presence of aromatics—i.e., these compounds act as kinetic inhibitors, limiting the production of H2. 

C. Raspe treated the ammoniacal liquid derived from the distillation of coal, bones, etc., with zinc carbonate to remove the sulphur, and finally distilled the product—the empyreumatic matters were removed by passing the vapours through hot coke. An acid carbonate is also made on a large scale from aqua ammonia (from gas liquor) and carbon dioxide. The product has 21-23 per cent, of ammonia. It decomposes more slowly than the ordinary commercial carbonate containing 31 per cent, of ammonia. According to P. Seidler, it furnishes the commercial carbonate when resublimed, as in the 1846 patent of F. C. Hills. 

Like ferric nitrate, antimony sulfate is decomposed by water, various basic salts being formed, the simplest of which has the formula (SbOLSCL. The normal salt is stable only in rather concentrated sulfuric acid. Since this latter solvent has almost no vapor pressure at ordinary temperatures, the moist salt cannot be dried by evaporation of the solvent. It cannot be dried on absorbent paper, since the oily liquid rapidly carbonizes it. In such a case, it is best to take advantage of the drying qualities of unglazed earthenware (porous plate), such as the biscuit which forms the body of dishes. Owing to the fine pores which this material contains, liquids are sucked up by it by capillary attraction, and it is not acted upon by most reagents. 

A recent achievement worthy of note is the manufacture of microspheres containing an inert gas, e.g. nitrogen, or a volatile liquid, such as the freons The patent literature contains methods for producing microspheres based on poly(vinyl chloride) and poly(divinyl chloride), containing isobutane or carbon tetrachloride 52>, and based on poly(methyl methacrylate), containing neopentane . Microspheres containing liquid dyes and oils are also used to make syntactic foams 58>. 

The primary antacids can be classified as aluminum-containing, magnesium-containing, calcium carbonate-containing, sodium bicarbonate-containing, or a combination of any of these classifications. These drugs are typically taken orally, either as tablets or as a liquid oral suspension. 

For the same coal, low-temperature liquids contain more tar acids and tar bases than high-temperature liquids. With high-temperature carbonization, the liquid products are water, tar, and crude light oil. The gaseous products are hydrogen, methane, ethylene, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and nitrogen. The products other than coke are collectively known as coal chemicals, or by-products. 

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