Carbon overview

John D. Buckley, Carbon-Carbon Overview, in Carbon-Carbon Materials and Composites, NASA Reference Publication 1254, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, DC, February 1992, pp. 1-17. 

The performance of different types of chlorination processes is discussed comprehensively in overview [31]. It should be mentioned that carbon tetrachloride can also be applied successfully in the chlorination of rare refractory metal oxides, including tantalum oxide. 

Apart from manifold structures, carbons can have various shapes, forms, and textures, including powders with different particle size distributions, foams, whiskers, foils, felts, papers, fibers [76, 77], spherical particles [76] such as mesocarbon microbeads (MCMB s) [78], etc. Comprehensive overviews are given, for example in [67, 71, 72], Further information on the synthesis and structures of carbonaceous materials can be found in [67, 70, 72, 75, 79]. Details of the surface composition and surface chemistry of carbons are reviewed in Chapter II, Sec. 8, and in Chapter III, Sec. 6, of this handbook. Some aspects of surface chemistry of lithiated carbons will also be discussed in Sec. 5.2.2.3. 

Vitamin K represents two groups of substances named phylloquinones (vitamin Kl produced by plants) and menaquinones-n (MK-n vitamin K2). Menaquinones are synthesized by bacteria, using repeated 5-carbon units in the molecules side chain, n stands for the number of 5-carbon units. Interestingly, MK-4 is synthesized only in small amounts by bacteria but can be produced by animals (including humans) from phylloquinones and is found in a number of organs. For an overview see [1, 2],... 

Overview of Calcium Carbonate Crystallization by Synthetic Substrates... 

In the USA, the Clean Air Act of 1970 established air-quality standards for six major pollutants particulate matter, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and photochemical oxidants. It also set standards for automobile emissions - the major source of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides. An overview of the major standards is given in Tab. 10.2. The levels of, for example, the European Union (1996) are easily achieved with the present catalysts. The more challenging standards, up to those for the ultralow emission vehicle, are within reach, but zero-emission will probably only be attainable for a hydrogen-powered vehicle. 

Buesseler KO, Bauer JE, Chen RF, Eglinton TI, Gustafsson O, Landing W, Mopper K, Moran SB, Santschi PH, Vernon Clark R, Wells ML (1996) An intercomparison of cross-flow filtration techniques used for sampling marine colloids overview and organic carbon results. Marine Chem 55 1-31 Buffle J, Perret D, Newman M (1992) The use of filtration and ultrafiltration for size fractionation of aquatic particles, colloids, and macromolecules. In Enviroiunental particles. Buffle J, van Leeuwen HP (eds) Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton FL, pl71-230... 

A variety of double bonds give reactions corresponding to the pattern of the ene reaction. Those that have been studied from a mechanistic and synthetic perspective include alkenes, aldehydes and ketones, imines and iminium ions, triazoline-2,5-diones, nitroso compounds, and singlet oxygen, 10=0. After a mechanistic overview of the reaction, we concentrate on the carbon-carbon bond-forming reactions. The important and well-studied reaction with 10=0 is discussed in Section 12.3.2. 

Figure 2.1 provides a quick overview of the basic chemical shift ranges for carbon-bound F, CF2, and CF3 substituents. Specific details... 

The most promising emerging technologies applied to carbon capture are discussed in this section to complete the overview of the C02 capture technologies currently under research. 

Some single examples of this type of reaction were discussed in earlier sections, but due to the importance of these transformations, an additional overview will be provided here. One of the first transformations based on this strategy was published by Inoue and coworkers [134] using propargylic alkoxide, an arylhalide or vinyl bromide and C02 to give cyclic carbonates. The Balme group used this ap-... 

Poly(hydroxyalkanoates) (PHAs), of which poly(hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) is the most common, can be accumulated by a large number of bacteria as energy and carbon reserve. Due to their bio degradability and bio compatibility these optically active biopolyesters may find industrial applications. A general overview of the physical and material properties of PHAs, alongside with accomplished applications and new developments in this field is presented in this chapter. 

Since the chemical structure and monomer composition of a specific polymer are the most important factors in determining the polymer s physical and material properties, a short recapitulation of typical representatives of microbially synthesized poly(hydroxyalkanoates) is presented in this section. A more detailed overview on this issue is available from References [19-21], but is not within our scope here. The monomer composition of PHAs depends on the nature of the carbon source and the microorganisms used. This way, numerous monomers have been introduced into PH A chains [3-9]. PHAs have been divided roughly into two classes [19]. 

Polyesters, such as microbially produced poly[(P)-3-hydroxybutyric acid] [poly(3HB)], other poly[(P)-hydroxyalkanoic acids] [poly(HA)] and related biosynthetic or chemosynthetic polyesters are a class of polymers that have potential applications as thermoplastic elastomers. In contrast to poly(ethylene) and similar polymers with saturated, non-functionalized carbon backbones, poly(HA) can be biodegraded to water, methane, and/or carbon dioxide. This review provides an overview of the microbiology, biochemistry and molecular biology of poly(HA) biodegradation. In particular, the properties of extracellular and intracellular poly(HA) hydrolyzing enzymes [poly(HA) depolymerases] are described. 

This overview is organized into several major sections. The first is a description of the cluster source, reactor, and the general mechanisms used to describe the reaction kinetics that will be studied. The next two sections describe the relatively simple reactions of hydrogen, nitrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, and oxygen reactions with a variety of metal clusters, followed by the more complicated dehydrogenation reactions of hydrocarbons with platinum clusters. The last section develops a model to rationalize the observed chemical behavior and describes several predictions that can be made from the model. 

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