But how

MHC background linked to normal lymphocyte numbers, not subjected to activation by infection or inflammation, neither iron overload nor iron deficiency will, in theory, develop (see Section 13.1). 

Higher iron levels with increased MCV are seen in heavy drinkers [33], (E. Cruz, impublished results). It is known that a small proportion of heavy drinkers develop liver disease. In a study of control subjects and heavy drinkers genotyped for HFE (Cruz et al, unpublished results), we have confirmed and added to this observation. In heavy drinkers with a particular HFE genotype, there is a statistically significant negative correlation between CD8-I- T cell numbers and some liver enzyme (i.e. ALT) levels. 

---

It is easy to say that operation of a reactor at higher temperature might lead to a safer plant if the inventory can be reduced as a result, but how do we assess such changes quantitatively Lowering the inventory makes the plant safer, but raising the temperature makes it less safe. Which effect is more significant ... 

But how to proceed if the sound velocity varies in the object or if there is no access to both sides to measure the thickness mechanically ... 

One method for measuring the temperature of the sea is to measure this ratio. Of course, if you were to do it now, you would take a thermometer and not a mass spectrometer. But how do you determine the temperature of the sea as it was 10,000 years ago The answer lies with tiny sea creatures called diatoms. These have shells made from calcium carbonate, itself derived from carbon dioxide in sea water. As the diatoms die, they fall to the sea floor and build a sediment of calcium carbonate. If a sample is taken from a layer of sediment 10,000 years old, the carbon dioxide can be released by addition of acid. If this carbon dioxide is put into a suitable mass spectrometer, the ratio of carbon isotopes can be measured accurately. From this value and the graph of solubilities of isotopic forms of carbon dioxide with temperature (Figure 46.5), a temperature can be extrapolated. This is the temperature of the sea during the time the diatoms were alive. To conduct such experiments in a significant manner, it is essential that the isotope abundance ratios be measured very accurately. 

Obviously this sort of loss is not admissible, but how do we stop it ... 

We saw in Chapter 6 that diffusive transformations (like the growth of metal crystals from the liquid during solidification, or the growth of one solid phase at the expense of another during a polymorphic change) involve a mechanism in which atoms are attached to the surfaces of the growing crystals. This means that diffusive transformations can only take place if crystals of the new phase are already present. But how do these crystals - or nuclei - form in the first place ... 

This excessive mass is quite unacceptable - the CFRP plate will need far too much energy to get it vibrating. But how can we reduce the mass without shifting the vibration frequency ... 

But how can we estimate the pressure-loss coefficient A Stegmaier - has summarized horizontal transport for several fine-granular solids by a correla tion which contains some characteristics of the material. The same idea has been used by Weber, who has found a correlation of the pressure-loss coefficient for vertical pneumatic conveyance based on data measured by Flatow. In order to express these models, we first introduce two dimensiitnless numbers... 

Some quality policy statements are as simple as these, others are much longer (see below) but all seem to be accommodated by a single page. Very short statements tend to become slogans which people chant but they rarely understand their impact on what they do. Their virtue is that they rarely become outdated. Long statements confuse people because they contain too much for them to remember. Their virtue is that they not only define what the company stands for but how it will keep its promises. 

One aspect of a contract often overlooked is shipment of finished goods. You have ascertained the delivery schedule, the place of delivery, but how do you intend to ship it by road, rail, ship, or air. It makes a lot of difference to the costs. Also delivery dates often mean the date on which the shipment arrives not the date it leaves. You therefore need to build into your schedules an appropriate lead time for shipping by the means agreed to. If you are late then you may need to employ speedier means but that will... 

The flowchart in Figure 18.1 shows an evaluation stage in the training process, but how do you do it ... 

Thus as t, Gl and Bl but how does this affeet the mean erystal size Sinee the order of nueleation is usually more than that of growth, the nueleation rate deereases relatively more with an inerease in t. Thus, the mean size inereases despite the lower growth rate (reeall that the residenee time is longer). Methods to estimate to what extent will be eonsidered later. 

Let s consider one rather restricted structural optimization problem, that of a composite laminate. You have seen claimed as attractive advantages of composite structures the fact that we can orient the laminae in a laminate to our heart s content to try to get the most efficient structure. This characteristic is totally unlike what is possible with metal structures. This laminate orientation flexibility is certainly an advantage, but how do we use it ... 

How big is an atom or a molecule It should be fairly obvious that atoms and molecules do take up a definite amount of space. A gas can be compressed into a smaller volume but only so far. Liquids and solids cannot be easily compressed. While the individual molecules in a gas are widely separated and can be pushed into a much smaller volume, the molecules in a liquid or a solid are already close together and cannot be squeezed much further. The bottom line is that atoms and molecules require a certain amount of space. But how much ... 

That s fine in the macroscopic world, but how does the concept of temperature translate to the microscopic world ... 

One such feedback is the influence of clouds and water vapor. As the climate warms, more water vapor enters the atmosphere. But how much And which parts of the atmosphere, high or low And how does the increased humidity affect cloud formation While the relationships among clouds, water vapor, and global climate are complicated in and of themselves, the situation is further complicated by the fact that aerosols exert a poorly understood influence on clouds. 

Practically everything we ve said in previous chapters has been stated without any proof. We said in Section 6.8, for instance, that Markovnikov s rule is followed in alkene electrophilic addition reactions and that treatment of 1-butene with HC1 yields 2-chJorobutane rather than 1-chlorobutane. Similarly, we said in Section 11.7 that Zaitsev s rule is followed in elimination reactions and that treatment of 2-chlorobutane with NaOH yields 2-butene rather than 1-butene. But how do we know that these statements are correct The answer to these and many thousands of similar questions is that the structures of the reaction products have been determined experimentally. 

Everyone thinks of himself as a good observer. Yet there is much more to it than meets the eye. It takes concentration, alertness to detail, ingenuity, and often just plain patience. It even takes practice Consider an example from your own experience. Think how much can be written about an object as familiar as a burning candle Of course, it takes careful observation—a careful experiment. This means the candle must be observed in a laboratory, that is, in a place where conditions can be controlled. But, how do we know which conditions need be controlled Be ready for surprises here Sometimes the important conditions are difficult to discover. Here are some conditions that are important in some experiments but are not important here. 

Le Chatelier s Principle permits the chemist to make qualitative predictions about the equilibrium state. Despite the usefulness of such predictions, they represent far less than we wish to know. It is a help to know that raising the pressure will favor production of NH3 in reaction (10a). But how much will the pressure change favor NH3 production Will the yield change by a factor of ten or by one-tenth of a percent To control a reaction, we need quantitative information about equilibrium. Experiments show that quantitative predictions are possible and they can be explained in terms of our view of equilibrium on the molecular level. 

Seen from a somewhat different perspective this fact should not seem at all paradoxical, because in seeking identity one needs to focus precisely on what does not change. But how can the mere value... 

---