Brain limbic system

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The brain limbic system is an organ that is related to the emotional processing mechanism inside the mammalian brain. The limbic system is closely related to the functions of memory, emotional processing, and emotional learning (Picard 1997). The anatomical structure of the human limbic system is shown in Figure 1. 

The main components of brain limbic system are amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, sensory cortex, and thalamus. This part of brain is involved in the emotional processing and learning (Bechara et al. 2000 Rolls 2000). In what follows, the primary components of the brain limbic system are briefly described and then a mathematical model of brain limbic system is introduced. Finally, the mathematical model is integrated with a PID and a semiactive inversion algorithm to develop a... 

A mathematical relationship between the components of brain limbic system was proposed by Moren and Balkenius (2000) from the descriptive physical model of the limbic system that provides a qualitative sense of the overall functioning of the system. Figure 2 shows the structure of the Moren-Balkenius computational BEL model. As depicted in the figure, the BEL model has four components of the so-called limbic system of the brain amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, sensory cortex and thalamus. Of them, amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex perform an important function in emotional processing (Moren and Balkenius 2000). 

Kim, C., Langari, R. (2009). Target tracking control of a mobile robot using a brain limbic system based control strategy. Proceedings IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, (pp. 5095-5064). St. Louis, MO IEEE. 

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) occurs in the intestinal wall, where it regulates motility and secretion in blood platelets, where it modulates platelet aggregation and vascular blood flow and in the CNS, where it acts as a neurotransmitter in areas of the midbrain. At least seven different receptors for serotonin have been characterized, which mediate a wide variety of different physiological effects. Depression and anxiety are thought to be the result of actions on 5-HTia receptors in the brain limbic system. Following release from neurons by a depolarizing action potential at central synapses, the activity of 5-HT is terminated by neuronal reuptake. This is performed by a synaptic membrane amine transporter protein, specific for 5-HT, which also co-transports sodium and chloride ions to repolarize the neuronal membrane. 

OT receptors are localized ia the brain hypothalamus, limbic system, cortex, striatum, olfactory system, and brain stem. In the periphery, OT is best known for its stimulation of uterine smooth muscle and the milk ejection reflex. Thr , Om ]oxytocin(l—8),... 

The vomeronasal organ (VNO), located in the nose, is a small chemical sensing stmcture associated with odors and behavioral effects. The vomeronasal system, which is made up of the VNO and a portion of the brain s limbic system, is stmcturaHy independent of the olfactory and nervous terminalis systems in the nose. It may, however, interact with these systems in a manner dependent on prior experience or learning, and therefore be direcdy related to the association of smells and experiences. This independent chemosensory system in the nose may prove to open doors to new learning associated with the sense of smell and human behavior. 

Much remains to be learned about the neurochemical regulation of noradrenergic transmission and even more research is required before we can define the role(s) of this neurotransmitter in the brain. Nevertheless, it is evident that these neurons are a crucial component of the network of monoamine influences on the limbic system and that they... 

Benzodiazepines, especially lorazepam, are used to prevent and treat CINV.5,10 Lorazepam is thought to prevent input from the cerebral cortex and limbic system from reaching the central vomiting center in the brain stem.10 Sedation and amnesia are common side effects. Respiratory depression can occur with high doses or when other central depressants such as alcohol are combined with benzodiazepines. 

In the first of these studies, the researchers identified the areas of the brain that are associated with normal sadness. They asked volunteer subjects to think about some very sad personal experiences - and about some emotionally neutral experiences - while their brains were being imaged in a PET scanner. When thinking about the sad experiences, the volunteers reported feeling intense sadness, and many of them became tearful. The PET scans showed the changes in brain activity that accompanied these sad feelings. They demonstrated increased blood flow in the limbic system - a part of the brain that is involved in the control of emotion - and decreased blood flow in parts of the brain that are involved in the control of attention. 

Figure 8.1 The pain pathway. The pain signal is transmitted to several regions of the brain, including the thalamus reticular formation hypothalamus limbic system and somatosensory cortex. Each region carries out a specific aspect of the response to pain.

Nerve signals from the thalamus and the reticular formation are transmitted to the limbic system as well as the hypothalamus. Together, these regions of the brain are responsible for behavioral and emotional responses to pain. The limbic system, in particular, may be involved with the mood-altering and attention-narrowing effect of pain. 

In animal studies, high levels of cortisol have been shown to induce (increase) the activity of the enzyme tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase in the liver, thereby decreasing the bioavailability of tryptophan to the brain. It is interesting to note that low acute doses of a number of different antidepressants inhibit the activity of this enzyme and, as a result, increase brain tryptophan concentrations, thus stimulating 5-HT synthesis (Badawy and Evans, 1982). In this way a link between the two key monoamine neurotransmitters and the hormone may be seen namely, reduced brain NA activity leads to decreased inhibition of the HPA axis, while increased levels of cortisol reduce 5-HT activity in the brain. Activation of the HPA axis has also been shown to result in tissue atrophy, in particular of the limbic system s hippocampus, and a reduction in the levels of neurotrophic factors responsible for the maintenance and optimal function of brain neurons (Manji et al., 2001). In conclusion, manipulation of the HPA axis (Nemeroff, 2002) and stimulation of neurotrophic factor activity (Manji et al., 2001) might open up new avenues for the treatment of affective disorders. 

Limbic system A network of brain structures involved in the regulation of a number of behavioural functions. 

The pleasure derived from using tobacco is linked to the stimulation of dopamine-dependent neurotransmitter pathways in the brain, particularly in the meso-limbic system. The precise nature of this link remains controversial, but many of the neurophysiological processes underlying nicotine addiction are common to other addictive drugs with diverse pharmacological actions such as opiates, cannabis, alcohol and cocaine. 

Repaske, D., Corbin, J. G., Conti, M. and Goy, M. F. A cyclic GMP-stimulated cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase gene is highly expressed in the limbic system of the rat brain. Neuroscience 56 673-686,1993. 

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