Book of the Composition

Morienus Romanus. The Book of the composition of alchemy edited by Adam McLean. Glasgow , 2002. 

Jewish and Islamic scholars were invited to the court of Frederick II in Sicily, and the Knights of St. John opened communication with the East on the island of Rhodes. Due to this influx, Sicily, Spain, and southern France rapidly became multicultural communities. In these areas Jewish and other scholars began to translate Arabic and Greek texts into Latin, which made them available to the rest of Europe. One of the first of these texts was the Book of the Composition of Alchemy, translated into Latin by the Englishman Robert of Chester in 1144. By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the art of gold-making was integrated into Western mystical philosophy. 

In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in Emope, Greek and Arab texts were translated from Arabic into Latin, the literary language of Emope. The first translation of an alchemical book from Arabic, The Book of the Composition of Alchemy, was prepared by Robert of Chester in 1144 CE in Spain (31). To the Four Elements, air, water, fire, and earth, Arab alchemists added mercury and sulfur. Paracelsus considered mercury and strlfirr as principles along with salt... 

In 1144 Robert of Chester began his translation of an Arabic alchemical treatise, the "Book of the Composition of Alchemy," by commenting on alchemy s novelty in Europe "Since what Alchymia is, and what its composition is, your Latin world does not yet know, I will explain in the present book." Quoted and translated in ibid., 106. 

Christian hermit and alchemist who was said to have taught Prince Khalid ibnYazid, the first Muslim alchemist. His Book of the Composition of Alchemy was the first alchemical tract to appear in the West, translated into Latin in 1144 by Robert of Chester. 

Robert s translation of Morienus s Book of the Composition of Alchemy in 1144 traditionally marks the beginnings of mediaeval European alchemy. He was also responsible for introducing algebra to the West. 

In this burst of translation, the work of Robert of Chester (fl. 1141-1150) stands out in the history of chemistry. Robert of Chester (or Retines), along with his friend Hermann the Dalmatian, had been asked by Peter the Venerable, Abbot of Cluny, to translate the Q ran into Latin. Robert then went on to translate the Book of the Composition of Alchemy, which he said he completed on February 11, 1144. Robert said of this work Since what Alchymia is, and what its composition is, your Latin World does not yet know, I will explain in the present book. The text was attributed to Khalid ibn Yazid, although it is almost certainly not by Yazid and it is not clear who was the original author. Although alchemical ideas may have existed in some attenuated forms in Europe before this date, it was largely as a result of the translation of this text that alchemy came to Europe. 

The story of Morienus is told in the first alchemy text that appeared in medieval Europe. This was the Book of the Composition of Alchemy, which was translated from Arabic into Latin in 1144 by an Englishman known as Robert of Chester. 

Probably one of the first translators, Robert of Chester (ca. 1150), was English and associated with the Christian church, perhaps as a cleric. He and his friend Hermann the Dalmatian were living in Spain and studying astrology when Peter the Venerable (a French abbot who argued for peaceful missionary Crusades) found them and asked them to translate the Koran. After finishing this work Robert translated The Book of the Composition of Alchemy. 

There are at the present time many thousands of grades of commercial plastics materials offered for sale throughout the world. Only rarely are the properties of any two of these grades identical, for although the number of chemically distinct species (e.g. polyethylenes, polystyrenes) is limited, there are many variations within each group. Such variations can arise through differences in molecular structure, differences in physical form, the presence of impurities and also in the nature and amount of additives which may have been incorporated into the base polymer. One of the aims of this book is to show how the many different materials arise, to discuss their properties and to show how these properties can to a large extent be explained by consideration of the composition of a plastics material and in particular the molecular structure of the base polymer employed. 

Magisteries, Elixirs, c. Together with his Books Of Renovation Restauration. Of the Tincture of the Philosophers. Of the Manual of the Philosophical Medicinal Stone. Of the Virtues of the Members. Of the Three Principles. And Finally his Seven Books, Of the Degrees and Compositions of Receipts, and Natural Things. Faithfully and plainly Englished, and Published by, J.H. Oxon. London, Printed for W.S. and are to be sold by Thomas Brewster at the Three Bibles in Pauls Church-yard. 1660."... 

Iron and Stainless Steel. The purpose of XPS investigations on typical corrosion systems like iron or stainless steel, is the determination of the composition of the passive surface layer, if possible, as a function of depth. As a consequence of the technical and economic relevance of corrosion reactions, XPS investigations on corrosion systems are numerous. With respect to the application of XPS, there is no difference between corrosion systems and any other electrochemical surface reaction like oxide formation on noble metals. Therefore, in this paragraph only a few recent typical results of such studies, using XPS, will be mentioned. For a detailed collection of XPS corrosion studies the reader is referred to references [43,104], A review of aqueous corrosion studies, using XPS, was given by McIntyre for the elements O, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu and Mo [105], The book edited by M. Froment [111] gives an impression of the research achieved on passivity of metals up to 1983. 

The composites described in this chapter present superior quality which is demonstrated by their surface properties and performance in comparison with the parent components, GO and MOF or other inorganic phases. The important aspect of these composite formations is taking advantage of the promising properties of both phases and the creation of the hybrid, which exhibits the surface features of both phases and, as a bonus, new unique properties created on the interface. Moreover, the specific behavior of the individual components when placed together can open the door for new applications, not foreseen in this concise chapter. One should see that the detailed characterization of these materials as adsorbents is only one example of their application, which we could explore in detail. Nevertheless, the zinc (hydr)oxide story, where the enhanced photoactivity and water splitting reactions were noticed while investigating the adsorption phenomena, is one more example of the open book of the usefulness of such new materials. 

This book is about life, mostly about the molecules of life. Molecules are the focus of the science of chemistry, just as animals are the focus for zoology, plants are the focus for botany, and outer space is the focus for astronomy. A bit more broadly, chemistry is the science of the composition, structure, properties, and reactions of matter, especially of atomic and molecular systems. Let s talk a bit about chemistry, the molecular science. 

In summary, the topic of engineered interfaces in composites is an important one, critical to the advance of the composites industry. Many practitioners from a range of disciplines are seeking the information which can be found in this book. The authors display the wide experience and theoretical knowledge necessary to provide a critical view of the subject. I strongly recommend this volume to the composite expert and student alike. 

In the book by Marcus Graecus Liber ignium translated from Arab sources and published ca. 1300, there is a fairly full description of the composition of a combustible mixture called flying fire (ignis volatilis) ... 

Since the fugacity and activity coefficients are mathematically complex functions of the compositions, finding corresponding compositions of the two phases at equilibrium when the equations are known requires solutions by trial. Suitable procedures for making flash calculations are presented in the next section, and in greater detail in some books on thermodynamics, for instance, the one by Walas (1985). In making such calculations, it is usual to start by assuming ideal behavior, that is,... 

A compound library contains one to many compound samples. In other words, library and compound sample form a Has-A relationship. At the same time, library and compound samples also share some common attributes such as project, chemist, and notebook. Therefore, they should have a common base class—we call it ChemicalEntity. In Figure 12.14, abstract class ChemicalEntity owns properties that are common to ChemicalLibrary and Chemicals ample, such as chemist, project, creation date, and notebook. Both ChemicalLibrary and ChemicalSample classes extend ChemicalEntity. The association line from ChemicalLibrary to ChemicalEntity indicates that a ChemicalLibrary is a composite of other chemical entities. This design is described as the Composite Pattern in the GoF book (Gamma et al., 1995). The benefit of the Composite Pattern is that component and composite share the same interfaces and therefore their clients can invoke them transparently without knowing whether they are dealing with a component or a composite at run time. 

CTCP Clinical Toxicology of Commercial Products 23,000 products CLINICAL TOXICOLOGY OF COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS Based on the Fifth Edition of the book of the same title by Drs. Gosselin, Smith, and Hodge. Information on manufacturer, uses, composition, and toxici ty... 

Rate equations in terms of concentrations and with presumably concentration-independent rate coefficients, as used in this book, are idealizations. In the real world, matters are more complex. For example, a change in polarity of the medium with progressing conversion may cause a variation of rate coefficients. Such effects are hard to predict and, as a rule, not overly serious. For practical purposes they can often be disregarded. Where this is not so, an experimental determination of the composition dependence of the coefficients is usually the best way to proceed. 

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