Blood activator analysis

Thermal neutron activation analysis has been used for archeological samples, such as amber, coins, ceramics, and glass biological samples and forensic samples (see Forensic chemistry) as weU as human tissues, including bile, blood, bone, teeth, and urine laboratory animals geological samples, such as meteorites and ores and a variety of industrial products (166). 

Calcium-selective electrodes have long been in use for the estimation of calcium concentrations - early applications included their use in complexometric titrations, especially of calcium in the presence of magnesium (42). Subsequently they have found use in a variety of systems, particularly for determining stability constants. Examples include determinations for ligands such as chloride, nitrate, acetate, and malonate (mal) (43), several diazacrown ethers (44,45), and methyl aldofuranosides (46). Other applications have included the estimation of Ca2+ levels in blood plasma (47) and in human hair (where the results compared satisfactorily with those from neutron activation analysis) (48). Ion-selective electrodes based on carboxylic polyether ionophores are mentioned in Section IV.B below. Though calcium-selective electrodes are convenient they are not particularly sensitive, and have slow response times. 

Versieck, J. and L. Vanbalieiibeighe Determination of Tin in Human Blood Semm by Radiochemical Neutron Activation Analysis,1 Analytical Chemistry. 1143 (June... 

Manzo L, Richelmi P, Sabbioni E, et al. 1981. Poisoning by triphenyltin acetate. Report of two cases and determination of tin in blood and urine by neutron activation analysis. Clin Toxicol 18 1343-1353. 

Neutron activation analysis (NAA) technique has also been used for determining low levels of barium in human blood (Olehy et al. 1966). This technique is based on the interaction of the nuclei of individual barium atoms with neutron irradiation, resulting in the emission of x-rays (photons). Detection limits of 7 pg barium/L of erythrocyte and 66 pg barium/L of plasma were obtained (Olehy et al. 1966). The advantages of the NAA technique are its nondestructive nature of sample and minimum sample manipulation. Disadvantages of this technique include its high costs and a nuclear reactor may not be readily available to many laboratories. 

There are many examples of relatively straightforward use of ICP-MS for the analysis of biological fluids. Antimony has been measured in blood after a 14 1 dilution [236]. Cesium serum levels were found to be elevated in patients with alcohol dementia but not in Alzheimer s disease patients [237]. Cobalt levels in rat serum depended on the form of cobalt [238] ingested. Bismuth levels were measured in human blood and urine by using a direct injection nebulizer [239]. Lead was measured in the blood and blood plasma of smelter workers and the general population [240]. The measurement of trace elements in serum by ICP-MS has been compared to results from neutron activation analysis and proton-induced x-ray emission [241]. Semiquantitative analysis can also be used to obtain a rapid screening of samples [242]. 

Selenium forms a volatile derivative, piazselenol, which can be subjected to GC analysis (Scheme 5.39). Young and Christian [612] treated selenium with 2,3-diaminonaph-thalene at pH 2.0 and extracted the resulting piazselenol into -hexane. With the use of an ECD, down to 5 10-I° g of selenium could be detected. The procedure, applied to the analysis of selenium in human blood, urine and river water, led to results equivalent to those obtained by neutron activation analysis. Similarly, Nakashima and Toei [613] performed the reaction of selenium (as selenious acid) with 4-chloro-o-phenylenediamine at pH 1 and extracted the derivative into toluene. They reported a detection limit of 0.04 jug. Shimoishi [614] analysed the content of selenium in metallic tellurium by this method. The sample was dissolved in aqua regia, followed by reaction with 4-nitro-o-phenylenediamine and extraction into toluene. Down to 10 ng of selenium could be determined using only a few milligrams of sample. Common ions did not interfere even when present in a large excess. Selenium in marine water was determined after the same derivatization step [615],... 

Many researchers have attempted to determine mercury levels in the blood, urine, tissues, and hair of humans and animals. Most methods have used atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS), atomic fluorescence spectrometry (AFS), or neutron activation analysis (NAA). In addition, methods based on mass spectrometry (MS), spectrophotometry, and anodic stripping voltametry (ASV) have also been tested. Of the available methods, cold vapor (CV) AAS is the most widely used. In most methods, mercury in the sample is reduced to the elemental state. Some methods require predigestion of the sample prior to reduction. At all phases of sample preparation and analysis, the possibility of contamination from mercury found naturally in the environment must be considered. Rigorous standards to prevent mercury contamination must be followed. Table 6-1 presents details of selected methods used to determine mercury in biological samples. Methods have been developed for the analysis of mercury in breath samples. These are based on AAS with either flameless (NIOSH 1994) or cold vapor release of the sample to the detection chamber (Rathje et al. 1974). Flameless AAS is the NIOSH-recommended method of determining levels of mercury in expired air (NIOSH 1994). No other current methods for analyzing breath were located. 

Lavi N, Alfassi ZB. 1988. Determination of trace amounts of titanium and vanadium in human blood serum by neutron activation analysis Coprecipitation with Pb/PDC/2 or Be/PDC/3. J Radioanal NucI Chem, letters 126 361-374. 

Lavi N, Alfassi ZB. 1990. Determination of trace amounts of cadmium, cobalt, chromium, iron, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, titanium, vanadium and zinc in blood and milk by neutron activation analysis. Analyst 115(6) 817-822. 

Sigolaeva, L.V., Makowe, A., Eremenko, A. V., Makhaeva, G.F., Malygin, V.V., Kurochkin I.V., and Scheller, F., Neuropathy target esterase activity in blood Biosensor analysis, Neurotoxicology, 21,637-638,2000 (abstract). 

Versieck J, Vanballenberghe L, Wittoek A, et al. 1993. The determination of strontiumin human blood serum and packed blood cells by radiochemical neutron activation analysis. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 168(l) 243-248. 

As identified in Table 1, the most common methods used to determine mercury levels in blood, urine, and hair of humans and animals include atomic absorption spectrometry (A AS), neutron activation analysis (NAA), x-ray fluorescence (XRF), and gas chromatography (GC). 

Methods applicable to the determination of trace quantities of antimony in organic matrices, except for neutron activation analysis, require the matrix to be destroyed before the antimony is measured. Wet oxidations using nitric, sulfuric, and perchloric acids have been used for samples of blood and tissue (3), and low temperature ashing has been used for samples of filter paper and ion exchange resins (4). 

Hewitt PJ and Hichs R (1972) Neutron activation analysis of blood and body tissues from rats exposed to wddingfume. In Nuclear Activation Techniques in the Life Sciences, Symposium Proceedings. International Atom Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna. 

At the University of Ghent Institute for Nuclear Sciences, neutron activation analysis was used for numerous additional studies in the biomedical field in close co-operation with a number of services at the University Hospital. Most elements were not only studied extracellularly in serum but also intracellularly in packed blood cells (Cornells et al., 1979 Cornells et al., 1981 Versieck et al., 1973 Versieck et al., 1974 Versieck et al., 1977 Versieck and Vanballenberghe, 1985 and Wallaeys et al., 1986). The urinary excretion of trace elements was also studied in a few subjects (Cornells et al., 1975) determinations in liver tissue were done by Lievens and associates (Uevens et al., 1977), in lung tissue by Vanoeteren and colleagues (Vanoeteren et al., 1982 Vanoeteren et al., 1983 and Va-noeteren et al.. 1986). Patients with internal diseases were also intensively studied, e.g.,... 

Cornells, R.. Lemey, G., Mees, L. and Versieck, J. Measurement of bromine in human blood serum by neutron activation analysis. Unpublished results. 

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