Models behavioural science

Servan-Schneider D, Printz H, Cohen JD (1990) A network model of catecholamine effects gain, signal-to-noise ratio, and behaviour. Science 249 892-895. 

Behavioural science commonly works by developing models of particular aspects of human behaviour. These models are inevitably simplifications of real life, in order to make it comprehensible. The models are frequently analogies drawn from other branches of knowledge. They represent the brain as a telephone exchange or a computer, the eye as a camera, etc. Different behavioural scientists use different analogies. This, to some extent, explains why there sometimes appear to be parallel and incompatible theories about the same aspect of human behaviour. Analogies are powerful and useful, but they have limitations which must always be acknowledged. They can never be perfect descriptions of the way that an individual functions, and will be useful only within their limits. In the sections which... 

A common model used in behavioural science, and in the biological and engineering sciences, is the systems model. Systems are defined as organised entities which are separated by distinct boundaries from the environment in which they operate. They import things across those boundaries, such as energy and information they transform those inputs inside the system, and export some form of output back across the... 

Dr. Kristie Young s time to write this chapter was supported by the Monash University Researcher Accelerator Program 2011-2012. Professor Regan s time to write this chapter was supported in part by the French Institute of Science and Technology for Transport, Development and Networks (IFSTTAR). Thanks to Miranda Comelissen and Dr. Paul Salmon for their design suggestions regarding the distraction and behavioural adaptation model. 

A model is one of the main outcomes of ary scientific enquiry and hence is a major contributor to philosophy of science. A model may be defined as a simplified representation of a phenomenon (an object, system, event, process) or idea produced for the specific purpose of providing an explanation of that entity, the most important outcomes of which are the production of successful predictions of how it will behave under a range of circumstances (Gilbert, Boulter, Elmer, 2000). Entities can be modelled at the three levels at the macroscopic, by representing some of the aspects of the entity that can be seen at the sub-microscopic, by representing the ideas produced to explain the constitution and behaviour of the particles that constitute the entity and at the symbolic, by representing the symbols created to simplify the reference to such particles (as, for instance, chemical formulae and chemical equations). 

Chemistry is the science that deals with the interaction between different forms of matter to bring about a change in the nature of the interacting matter. According to the nuclear model of the atom it is evident that chemical interaction is due to interacting electron clouds. In order to understand chemical interactions it is therefore necessary to understand, in the first place the behaviour of electrons. 

The application of thermodynamic models to the correlation and prediction of pharmaceutical solubility behaviour is an underutilized technique in today s process research and development environment. This is due to the relatively poor accuracy and limited predictive ability of the previous generation of models. Recent advances in computational chemistry and an increased focus on the life science sectors has led to the development of more appropriate models with significantly improved predictive capabilities. The NRTL-SAC and Local UNIFAC approaches will be discussed here with additional examples given in section 8. 

The long-term goal in the science of thermochemical conversion of a solid fuel is to develop comprehensive computer codes, herein referred to as a bed model or CFSD (computational fluid-solid dynamics). Firstly, this CFSD code must be able to simulate basic conversion concepts, with respect to the mode, movement, composition and configuration of the fuel bed. The conversion concept has a great effect on the behaviour of the thermochemical conversion process variables, such as the molecular composition and mass flow of conversion gas. Secondly, the bed model must also consider the fuel-bed structure on both micro- and macro-scale. This classification refers to three structures, namely interstitial gas phase, intraparticle gas phase, and intraparticle solid phase. Commonly, a packed bed is referred to as a two-phase system. 

Macquet, C. Thomassin, J. H. 1992. Archaeological glasses as modelling of the behaviour of buried nuclear waste glasses. Applied Clay Science, 7, 17-31. 

Simple dynamical systems have proved valuable as models of certain classes of physical systems in many branches of science and engineering. In mechanics and electrical engineering Duffing s and van der Pol s equations have played important roles and in physical chemistry and chemical engineering much has been learned from the study of simple, even artificially simple, systems. In calling them simple we mean to imply that their formulation is as elementary as possible their behaviour may be far from simple. Models should have the two characteristics of feasibility and actuality. By the first we mean that a favourable case can be made for the proposed reaction, perhaps by some further elaboration of mechanism but within the framework of accepted kinetic principles. Thus irreversible reactions are acceptable provided that they can be obtained as the limit of a consistent reversible set. By actuality we mean that they are set in an actual context, as taking place in a stirred tank, on a catalytic surface or in a porous medium. It is not usually necessary to assume the reaction to take place in a closed system with certain components held constant presumably by being in excess. 

A characteristic feature of nonlinear science generally, and of nonlinear optics in particular, is the common necessity of having to make simplifications, and then approximations in order to solve the equations of even the simplified models. These considerations apply a fortiori to the study of fluctuation phenomena in nonlinear systems, and thus account for the increasing role being played by analog and digital simulations, which enable the behaviour of the model systems to be investigated in considerable detail. 

Until the last few decades colloid science stood more or less on its own as an almost entirely descriptive subject which did not appear to fit within the general framework of physics and chemistry. The use of materials of doubtful composition, which put considerable strain on the questions of reproducibility and interpretation, was partly responsible for this state of affairs. Nowadays, the tendency is to work whenever possible with well-defined systems (e.g. monodispersed dispersions, pure surface-active agents, well-defined polymeric material) which act as models, both in their own right and for real life systems under consideration. Despite the large number of variables which are often involved, research of this nature coupled with advances in the understanding of the fundamental principles of physics and chemistry has made it possible to formulate coherent, if not always comprehensive, theories relating to many of the aspects of colloidal behaviour. Since it is important that colloid science be understood at both descriptive and theoretical levels, the study of this subject can range widely from relatively simple descriptive material to extremely complex theory. 

Cooper, M. D., Towards a Model of Safety Culture, Safety Science (2000) vol. 36, p. 111-136 (http //behavioural-safety.com/articles/Towards A Model Of Safety Culture/). 

Perreux D., Lazuardi D., The effects of residual stress on the non-linear behaviour of composite laminates. Part n. Layer, laminate non-linear models and the effect of residual stress on the model parameters. Composites Science and Technology 61(2) (2001) 177-190... 

Laws regulating toxic substances in various countries are designed to assess and control risk of chemicals to man and his environment. Science can contribute in two areas to this assessment firstly in the area of toxicology and secondly in the area of chemical exposure. The available concentration ( environmental exposure concentration ) depends on the fate of chemical compounds in the environment and thus their distribution and reaction behaviour in the environment. One very important contribution of Environmental Chemistry to the above mentioned toxic substances laws is to develop laboratory test methods, or mathematical correlations and models that predict the environ-... 

Coming to the present volume, one aim has been to provide a basis on which the student and researcher in molecular science can build a sound appreciation of the present and future developments. Accordingly, the chapters do not presume too much previous knowledge of their subjects. Professor Scaife is concerned, inter alia, to make clear what is the character of those aspects of the macroscopic dielectric behaviour which can be precisely delineated in the theoretical representations which rest on Maxwell s analysis, and he relates these to some of the general microscopic features. The time-dependent aspects of these features are the particular concern of Chapter 2 in which Dr. Wyllie gives an exposition of the essentials of molecular correlation functions. As dielectric relaxation methods provided one of the clearest models of relaxation studies, there is reason to suggest that dipole reorientation provides one of the clearest examples of the correlational treatment. If only for this reason, Dr. Wyllie s chapter could well provide valuable insights for many whose primary interest is not in dielectrics. 

The role of computer modelling in the science of complex solids including microporous materials was surveyed in Faraday Discussion 106 held in 1997. These techniques have now an increasingly predictive role. They can, for example, predict new microporous structures, design templates for their synthesis and model the static and dynamical behaviour of sorbed molecules within their pores,a topic of enduring importance and one of particular interest to Barrer. Computer modelling methods are, of course, most effective when used in a complementary manner with other physical techniques. Ref. 6 nicely illustrates this theme. Here EXAFS and quantum mechanical methods are used in a concerted manner to elucidate the structure of the active site in microporous titanosilicate catalysts. Articles in Faraday Discussions, vol. 106 again illustrate the complementarity of computational and experimental techniques. 

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