Aversion primary

In CRA with alcohol-dependent patients, reinforcement of disulfiram compliance is one of the primary components of treatment, such that use of alcohol loses its reinforcing aspects and, in fact, becomes aversive. Furthermore, reinforcement from other sources is increased. Positive reinforcement for not drinking comes in the form of scheduhng other recreational activities and reorganizing daily life by breaking down pracrical barriers. For example, the therapist may assist the patient in obtaining a telephone, a place to hve, or transportation to treatment. 

In an era of escalating health care costs, "inputs" to the production of health care, such as pharmaceuticals, physician visits, laboratory/diagnostic services, and hospital care, are often viewed in isolation from each other as if one sector of the health care economy can be optimized independent of the others. When cost containment is the primary economic objective, a shortterm, risk-averse decision rubric emerges. 

In neophobia, defined as an individuaTs avoidance of a novel object (Barrows, 1995), an animal may totally reject a new food, or take minute amounts to await the consequence of this ingestion. Neophobia, therefore, forms the transition between primary and conditioned aversions. 

Attempts to label dangerous substances with either characteristic or outright unpleasant odors have not been successful with children, the primary victims of accidental poisonings by toxic household products. Children tolerate odors that adults find unpleasant, such as that of butyric acid. The range between the most pleasant and unpleasant odors is much narrower for children around 4years of age than for adults, and also much narrower than for taste stimuli. This means that olfactory cues are not suited to produce aversive responses in children (Engen, 1974b, Cain, 1978). 

However, the primary difficulty in executing model (6.14) is in determining a suitable set of values for 0, that caters to decision makers who are either risk-prone or risk-averse. An approach to circumvent this problem is available in which the variance (or the standard deviation) of the objective function is minimized as follows ... 

Weinberger NM (1998) Physiological memory in primary auditory cortex characteristics and mechanisms. Neurobiol Learn Mem 70 226-251 Welzl H, D Adamo P, Lipp HP (2001) Conditioned taste aversion as a learning and memory paradigm. Behav Brain Res 125 205-213... 

Because the CPA test is based on associative learning between a noxious stimulus-induced aversive affect and a neutral environmental context, it is difficult to determine whether the attenuation of CPA is due to the impairment of associative learning or the suppression of the primary aversive affect. To address this issue, we examined whether intra-vBNST injection of isoproterenol, a /3-adrenoceptor agonist, produced CPA even in the absence of formalin-induced noxious stimulus. The results showed the aversive effect of intra-vBNST injection of isoproterenol, indicating that the activation of /3-adrenoceptors within the vBNST is sufficient to produce the negative affective states. Therefore, the attenuation of F-CPA and A-CPA by the blockade of /3-adrenoceptors within the vBNST may be due to the reduction of the primary aversive affect. 

A fundamental property of motivational stimuli is their motivational valence . This property determines the direction of the response in relation to the stimulus. Stimuli with a positive motivational valence elicit approach stimuli with a negative motivational valence elicit aversion. Motivational valence can be either unconditioned or conditioned, as a result of learning of its association with a primary motivational stimulus or with the outcome of a motivated response. 

Lactose, the primary sugar found in milk, is a disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose. With age, many children lose their ability to digest large amounts of lactose, leading to lactose intolerance. This permanent condition, which occurs in adolescence and adulthood, is not an important health concern, although it may lead to an aversion to milk, an important food. 

Commercial polyethyleneimine 1 is prepared by ring-opening polymerization of ethyleneimine [Eq. (6—1)]. This polymer is a highly branched, relatively compact, water-soluble macromolecule, and approximately contains 25% primary, 50% secondary, and 25% tertiary nitrogen atoms 112). The averse structure is therefore represented as i ven below. Recently, Saegusa et al. succeeded in preparing linear, crystalline polyethyleneimine by polymerization of 2-oxazoline and subsequent hydrolysis [Eq. (6-2)] (ii5). 

Chemical repellents produce their effect in one of two ways (Rogers, 1974). Primary chemical repellents are congenitally avoided because of their unpleasant sensory attributes. While primary chemical repellents may be malodorous or unpalatable, most such repellents are nociceptive stimuli causing irritation and pain. Primary repellents are often mimics of pain-promoting neurochemicals, hence the basis for their congenital avoidance (Clark 1998). Secondary repellents are agents that cause illness or pain and, when paired with ancillary sensory stimuli, promote learned avoidance of treated substrates (Garcia et al., 1966). The distinction between the two types of repellents is that animals do not need to learn about primary repellents because their aversive properties are intrinsic. By definition, primary repellents can become secondary repellents, but not vice versa. 

While Dimitri Mendeleev had remained strongly opposed to any attempts to reduce, or explain, the periodic table in terms of atomic structure, Julius Lothar Meyer was not so averse to the reduction of the periodic system.The latter strongly believed in the existence of primary matter and also supported William Prout s hypothesis. Lothar Meyer did not hesitate to draw curves through the numerical properties of atoms, whereas Mendeleev beheved this to be a mistake, since it conflicted with his own behef in the individuahty of the elements. 

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