Arctic regions

Specifications for density, distillation curve and viscosity shown above are for products distributed in temperate climates. Other limits are required for arctic regions, particularly the Scandinavian countries. See Tables 5.13 and 5.14. 

The severity of weather in arctic regions, especially in winter months, presents difficulties. They can be in monitoring corrosion, inspection of equipment. 

In a survey of atmospheric corrosion in the Canadian arctic and sub-arctic regions rates-as low as 2-5 uva/y were recorded at inland sites . Within 1 km of the sea, rates of 21-34 m/y were measured. 

Special formulations have been developed for cementing operations in arctic regions or for deep water applications [206,208,256,720,739,1792]. In low-temperature formations, wherein the cement is subjected to freeze-thaw cycling, freezing-point depressants must be added. Salts may serve as such, but traditional organic freezing-point depressants, such as ethylene glycol, also may be added [1022-1024]. 

Compared to adults, the daily intake of PCDD/PCDFs and PCBs by breastfed babies is 1-2 orders of magnitude higher. A recent field study showed higher mean levels of PCDD/PCDFs and PCBs in human milk in industrialized areas (10-35 pg I-TEQ/g milk fat) and lower levels in developing countries (< 10 pg I-TEQ/g milk fat). Very few studies have been performed on Arctic populations with respect to the exposure of children to these substances. It is likely, however, that the differences in exposure between children and adults demonstrated in many industrialized regions also exist in Arctic regions. 

Primary separation facilities process the produced fluids and gases into individual streams of gas, oil and water. These facilities are commonly referred to as Gas Oil Separation Plants (GOSP s), Central Processing Facilities (CPF) or if located offshore on drilling, production and quarters platforms (PDQ s). The offshore platform may either float on the sea or be supported on steel or concrete supports secured to the ocean floor, where it is capable of resisting waves, wind, and in Arctic regions ice flows. In some instances surplus oil tankers have been converted into offshore production and storage facilities. 

There are no effective boundaries when it comes to pollutants. Studies have shown that toxic insecticides that have been banned in many countries are riding the wind from countries where they remain legal. Compounds such as DDT and toxaphene have been found in remote places like the Yukon and other Arctic regions. 

The physical approach is not undisputable, as it does not take into account the conditions of the occurrences or of the production of the crude oil (e.g., onshore or offshore, water depths, climatic conditions, etc.). Therefore, some authors give a narrower definition of conventional oil. Campbell (2006), for instance, considers crude oil that is found under deep-water conditions (water depths greater 500 m) or in arctic regions, as well as NGL as unconventional oil. As a consequence, the remaining potential of conventional oil is estimated to be lower. 

Taking into account the electrochemical nature of the atmospheric corrosion process it is absolutely necessary to use the concept of Time of Wetness (TOW). It is a concept commonly used in atmospheric corrosion of metallic materials and refers to the time when the metal is sufficiently wet for corrosion reaction to occur, that is, when an electrolyte is present in the metallic surface. Under the particular characteristics of atmospheric corrosion there are time periods where corrosion could not occur due to the absence of an electrolyte in the metallic surface. The lowest outdoor TOW values are observed in the desert regions, as also in the Antarctic and Arctic regions. Atmospheric corrosion rates of metals at these climatic conditions are also very low and in the case of cold regions, the increase of temperature leads to the increase of TOW and corrosion rate [11], In principle, TOW is a parameter that depends upon both the climatic conditions and in the characteristics of the metallic surface. 

Compared to 352 local female construction workers in which the spontaneous abortion rate was 8.5%, an increase in spontaneous abortions to 15.9% was observed among 356 women who worked in a nickel hydrometallurgy refining plant in the arctic region of Russia (Chashschin et al. 1994). Exposure concentrations were 0.08-0.196 mg nickel/m, primarily as nickel sulfate, and nickel concentrations in the urine were 3.2-22.6 pg/L. Nickel levels in the urine of persons not occupationally exposed are generally <0.1-13.3 pg/L (Sunderman 1993). The investigators noted that the nickel-exposed women manually lifted heavy nickel anodes and that they may have experienced heat stress. 

Reproductive Toxicity. An increase in the abortion rate has been reported among women who worked in a nickel hydrometallurgy refining plant in the arctic region of Russia (Chashschin et al. 

Consumption of food is expected to be the major route of exposure in humans (Lindstrom 1999). Consumption of fish has been associated with elevated levels of PBDEs in tissues from the Swedish population (Bergman et al. 1999). In Sweden, fish consuirption is about 30 g/day this translates to an estimated 0.1 g of PeBDE and 0.3 g of total PBDEs from fish that is ingested by humans daily (WHO 1994a). The fish of greatest concern to humans are bottom feeders like carp and catfish. Like PCBs, there may be a higher risk of exposure to PBDEs in Native Americans that reside in the Arctic region who consume whale and seal blubber (Jaret2000). 

Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers. Subsistence fisherman who consume PBDE contaminated fish and Native Americans that reside in the Arctic region who consume whale and seal blubber may have a higher risk of exposure to PBDEs (WHO 1994a). No other information was located that identified specific populations with higher exposure levels to PBDEs. 

There is already one excellent example of our failure to make such a predictive leap—the Antarctic ozone hole. The reason for the failure to anticipate the rapid loss of ozone in the lower stratosphere was a failure to appreciate the potential role of the subtle photochemistry, in particular, the heterogeneous chemistry. Nor did researchers have a full appreciation for the consequences of the air parcels inside the polar vortices being relatively isolated from midlatitude air. Some of these same issues are important in the Arctic region in wintertime, but researchers lack the predictive capability to determine how ozone will ultimately be affected. 

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