Applications of Intercalation Compounds

1443 W-h/kg (LiCF)], and a volume density of 10 W-h/in. , the battery is currently marketed by Matsushita in six different capacities. The most popular of these, the BR-435, is a cylindrical cell 4 mm in diameter by 30 mm long 4 million of these cells were produced in 1977 B31). 

For a more-detailed treatment of the use of intercalation compounds in electrochemistry, more-specialized reviews (Wl, El5, B33) may be consulted. 

A great deal of excitement has been generated by the assertion that some intercalation compounds of graphite possess a conductivity greater than that of copper (VIO, F13, Til). Much of this work was based upon earlier researches by Ubbelohde, who found that the a-axis conductivity of the semi-metal graphite increases, and develops a me- 

Currently, there is disagreement concerning the actual magnitude of the conductivity increase, but there is no doubt that an effect, most pronounced for such acceptors as AsFj, does exist TIO, V13). Models evolved in order to account for the magnitude of the conductivity increase included intergraphite layer-separation (F5), the intercalant concentration (FlO), and carrier-mobility enhancement (F5). 

The actual utility of this discovery depends on the ability to go from hosts consisting of expensive, highly oriented, pyrolytic graphite to hosts composed of cheap graphite powders or fibers. Care must be taken on intercalation, because defects in such low-rank graphites may affect not only the intrinsic conductivity of the host (Z4) but may also serve as sites for oxidative reactions that may disrupt the host (Ell). 

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APPLICATION OF INTERCALATED COMPOUND OF MONTMORILLONITE AND N, N -DIPHENYL-p-PHENYLENEDIAMINE TO ANTIOXIDANT FOR RUBBER MATERIALS... 

For nonionic dyes, their surface interactions, such as ion-dipole and hydrogen bonding, can significantly alter the photophysical and photochemical properties of the dyes. On the other hand, organically modified clays accommodate a variety of nonionic dyes without significant modification of their properties. While the amounts of dye intercalated cannot be controlled (or evaluated) precisely, the photoprocesses of such dyes can yield important microscopic information. Hierarchical control from micro- to macroscopic structures is a key issue for the practical application of intercalation compounds. Recent developments regarding controlled macroscopic forms of intercalation compounds, such as particle shape (300,301), and the characterization of suspensions (302) represent milestones for the application of intercalation compounds. 

The first electrochemical applications of intercalation compounds appeared on Uthium-metal batteries (LMBs). The idea of using materials that undergo insertion reactions as the electrochemicaUy active components of batteries began to be explored and accepted in the early 1970s [8]. Of particular interest was the case of an electrmi donor mechanism that takes place in transiticm-metal dichalcogenides AtX2 (X = S, Se). The prototype is the system... 

At present, intercalation compounds are used widely in various electrochemical devices (batteries, fuel cells, electrochromic devices, etc.). At the same time, many fundamental problems in this field do not yet have an explanation (e.g., the influence of ion solvation, the influence of defects in the host structure and/or in the host stoichiometry on the kinetic and thermodynamic properties of intercalation compounds). Optimization of the host stoichiometry of high-voltage intercalation compounds into oxide host materials is of prime importance for their practical application. Intercalation processes into organic polymer host materials are discussed in Chapter 26. 

Intercalation of organic molecules into layered host lattice produces a variety of organic-inorganic hybrid materials. The solvothermal method provides a reaction system that allows application of high temperatures and therefore is a powerful technique for preparation of intercalation compounds. Exfoliation of layers may occur because of applied high temperatures. For example, exfoliated poly-ethylene/montmoriUonite nanocomposites were reported to be prepared by solvothermal reaction of organophilic montmorillonite with polyethylene in toluene at 170°C for 2... 

The first intercalation chemistry was reported in 1841 by Schafifautl, who successfully intercalated sulfate ions into graphite. After this pioneering work, fascination with intercalation chemistry did not start until the 1960s. The synthesis and study of intercalation compounds are both useful and rewarding. Intercalated phases have found applications as electrodes in high-energy-density batteries [9] and as catalytic materials [10]. Since the... 

From the viewpoint of practical application, the intercalation compound should be inexpensive, nontoxic, and environmentally friendly. 

Due to its high energy density (3,860 mAh/g) and low voltage, lithium is the most attractive metal of the periodic table for battery application. Unfortunately lithium metal, and most of its alloys cannot be used in rechargeable batteries because of their poor cyclability. Therefore, lithium intercalation compounds and reversible alloys are among today s materials of choice for subject application. The most common active materials for the negative electrodes in lithium-ion battery applications are carbonaceous materials. The ability of graphitized carbonaceous materials to... 

Combined with appropriate amorphous carbon precursors graphite intercalation compounds could be used in one-stage process of production of carbon-carbon composites, which could possess attractive properties for such applications as supercapacitors elements, sorbents as well as catalyst supports and materials for energy- and gas-storage systems. 

Because of its strong coupling with MW, its good adsorbent properties towards organic molecules [12], and its layer structure which enables it to form intercalated compounds [13], graphite has great potential in MW-assisted synthetic applications in organic chemistry, despite its weak fractal dimension (D x 2) [14]. 

M. Inagaki, Applications of graphite intercalation compounds, Journal of Materials Research,... 

On a more fundamental side, much of this chapter has focused on lattice-gas models applied to intercalation systems. The application of such models to metallic intercalation compounds is understood, and indeed the models describe some intercalation compounds quantitatively. But more study is needed of systems where the density of states is low, or where the band picture breaks down. 

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