Apocrine gland

Kligman A. and Shehadeh N. (1964). Pubic apocrine glands and odor. Arch Dermatol 89, 461-464... 

Spielman A., Sunavala G., Harmony J., Stuart W., et al. (1998). Identification and immunohistochemjcal localization of protein precursors to human axillary odors in apocrine glands and secretions. Arch Dermatol 134, 813-818. 

From Wolff K, Johnson RA. Disorders of sebaceous and apocrine glands. Fitzpatrick s Color Atlas Synopsis of Clinical Dermatology. 5th ed. New York McGraw-Hill, 2005 5.)... 

Deodorants are also targeted to the skin surface to keep microbial growth in check. They slow or prevent rancidification of the secretions of apocrine glands found in and around the axillae (armpits) and the anogenital regions. Medicated soaps also belong in this family. 

It has been shown that women s body odour changes across their menstrual cycle (Havlicek et al. 2006 Singh and Bronstad 2001). Odours of women in the fertile phase were rated as the least intense and the most attractive. This may result in misidentification of women s gender in some phases of their cycle (e.g. in menstrual phase). Another possible explanation is the fact that women have on average smaller apocrine glands than men and therefore produce less intense body odour... 

Apis mellifera (Honey bee), ability of colony guards to discriminate between members and intruders, 174 Apocrine glands, 189, 190 androgens from, 112 Areola, 326... 

Apocrine glands produce a viscous secretion that contains compounds related to communication between individuals of a species, by acting as a sex attractant or as territorial marker. In humans, these glands are located only in the axillary, pubic, and perianal region. 

In addition, the apocrine glands in the skin secrete pheromones (see below). 

Flumans possess glands that produce potential pheromones, known as scent or apocrine glands. They are associated with hair follicles primarily in the underarm or the anogenital regions (pubic hair) and on the skin of the abdomen. The role of the hair in these locations may be to facilitate release of the pheromone into the atmosphere. 

FIGURE 3.7 Elements of mammalian skin glands. S, sebaceous gland A, apocrine gland E, eccrine gland M, errector pili muscle H, hair follicle. (From Albone, 1984.)... 

Testosterone stimulates secretion in sebaceous and apocrine glands in rabbits, rats, guinea pigs, and hamsters, while estrogen in most cases inhibits secretion. Progesterone tends to be neutral (reviewed by Ebling, 1977). 

FIGURE 6.7 The double scent mark of the brown hyena. The black mark on top originates from apocrine glands and the white mark from separately located sebaceous glands. (Redrawn from Mills etal., 1980.)... 

The apocrine glands in the axilla can secrete enormous amounts of steroids such as dihydrotestosterone and pregnenolone (Brooksbank, 1970). Three single steroid compounds have also been tested on T-shirts. Surprisingly, both sexes attributed androstenol to females. Two other synthetic compounds were attributed to one or the other sex, depending on concentration, and one was perceived as very negative. Androstenol and the two synthetic compounds have very low olfactory thresholds for humans. 

Zeng, X.-N., Leyden, J. J., Brand, J. G., etal. (1992). An investigation of human apocrine gland secretion for axillary odor precursors. JournalofChemicalEcology 18,1039-1055. 

Naturally we don t want to be releasing malodours, or even appear to be sweating, when we wish to be in close proximity to other people and so we use an antiperspirant to suppress the apocrine glands. Sometimes the products that do this even have benefits that were not expected. In one study, antiperspirants were tested on the feet of new recruits at a U S military academy who were then sent on daily 20 km marches. The result was far fewer foot blisters - as well as less smelly feet. 

Earwax is a normal secretion. The main component, cerumen, is a protective wax-like substance with antifungal and antibacterial properties that traps particles and so helps keep the ears clean. Earwax is formed when cerumen secreted by the sebaceous and apocrine glands in the external auditory canal combines with sebum, exfoliated skin cells, sweat, hair and retained dust. 

However, in the light of multiple experimental findings based upon more accurate and precise techniques, this model seems to be oversimplified since it does not take into account the potential transfer of drugs from sweat, sebaceous and apocrine gland secretions, nor the external contamination even via deep compartments located in the skin surrounding the hair follicle. 

Axillary and pubic hairs are quite similar in terms of growth rate (approximately 0.3 mm/d) and growth/rest cycle durations (11-18 months/12-17 months). They are both exposed to sweat and sebum secretions in addition to the secretions of the apocrine glands which are present only in the axilla and pubic area and discharge directly into the hair follicle rather than onto the surface of the surrounding skin. Axillary hair is less exposed to environmental contamination, but may be subjected to cosmetic treatments. Pubic hair may be contaminated by urine. Both types of hair are composed of ambosexual follicles. 

Eccrine and apocrine glands, the sweat glands, are distributed throughout the skin. They are situated deep within the dermis and are simple coiled tubular... 

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