Animal methodology

A. Nelson and J. F. Stoddart, Synthesis of lactoside glycodendrons using photoaddition and reductive animation methodologies, Carbohydr. Res., 339 (2004) 2069-2075. 

The Buchwald-Hartwig aryl animation methodology cited above in this section was engaged by Hartwig and others to synthesize AT-arylindoles 377 [469]. Carbazole can be N-arylated under these same conditions with p-cyanobromobenzene (97% yield). Aryl chlorides also function in this reaction. The power of this animation method is seen by the facile synthesis of tris-carbazole 378 [469c]. 

Applying Buchwald s Pd-catalyzed animation methodology, Thomas and coworkers prepared a range of bicyclic piperazine [108]. While Pd-catalyzed animation of 5-bromobenzofuran led to 5-benzofurylpiperizine 136 in 65% yield after deprotection, the corresponding reaction of 7-bromobenzofuran only gave 7-benzofurylpiperizine 137 in 20% yield. They speculated that either steric hindrance of the oxidative addition intermediate or the interaction between the oxygen lone pair and the metal center was responsible for the low yield. The debrominated benzofuran was the major by-product. 

The powerful Buchwald-Hartwig aryl animation methodology [135-141] has been applied by Hartwig to the synthesis of iV-arylpyrroles (196) [142,143]. 

Hutson, D.H., Caldwell, J., and Paulson, G.D., Intermediary Xenobiotic Metabolism in Animals Methodology, Mechanisms, and Significance, Taylor Francis, London, 1989. 

Knight A. Non-animal methodologies within biomedical research and toxicity testing. ALTEX Alternat Tierexp. 2008 25(3) 213-231. 

The versatility of this catalyst was demonstrated by Loeppky who showed that cyclopropylamine reacts well with many aryl bromides.19 This proved to be a great improvement over a traditional multi-step reductive animation methodology. As before, this catalyst proved robust enough to work well on the solid phase for the cross-coupling of primary amines to immobilized aryl bromides.20... 

For dmgs approved originally between 1938 and 1962, the FDA has utilized the Abbreviated New Dmg AppHcation (ANDA) for review of generic products that are pharmaceutical equivalents of the initially approved products. In this way, costiy dupHcation of animal and human experimentation is avoided. The new manufacturer has to show only that its manufacturing methodology, specifications, quaUty control, and labeling are acceptable. In some cases, the FDA does require proof of bioequivalence. 

Controversy over test methodology, and concern with the welfare of test animals, has been highly pubhci2ed in the last decade, and various states have proposed legislation to ban animal tests. Significant effort has been devoted to developing nonanimal alternative tests and predictive methods. Progress has been made, but no entirely satisfactory substitute has been found to date (142). 

Compound optimization in early- and late-phase drug discovery is covered, emphasizing physicochemical properties, in vitro absorption, metabolism and in vivo animal pharmacokinetic methodologies. 

Luke MA, Masiunoto HT, Cairns T, et al. 1988. Levels and incidence of pesticide residues in various foods and animal feeds analyzed by the luke multiresidue methodology for fiscal years 1982-1986. J Assoc Off Anal Chem 71 415-420. 

A quite different approach to the study of plant responses to stress has been explored by those ecologists who have followed the example of Harper (1977) in applying to plants techniques originally deployed in investigations of animal populations. Here the methodology has been demographic and the resulting data have allowed responses to stress to be analysed in terms of fluctuations in the rates of mortality and recruitment of either plant populations or plant parts (e.g. leaves, inflorescences). 

When the new term permease was coined to designate bacterial membrane proteins specialized in the transport of specific metabolites [1,2], it covered a concept which was not quite new. The existence of membrane transport systems had been demonstrated in animal tissues by Cori as early as 1925 (see [3]). However, the discovery and characterization of permeases in bacteria revolutionized prospects for studying the properties of transport systems, opening the way to a new field and a very fruitful methodology. 

Inhibitors of AR have been demonstrated to prevent a wide variety of biochemical, functional and structural alterations in animal models of diabetes. Early studies demonstrated arrest of both early cataract development and nerve conduction velocity. At least 30 clinical trials of AR inhibitors have been published involving nearly 1000 patients in total. However, there is little impressive data of their efficacy up to now but, rather than undermine the hypothesis linking excess polyol pathway activity to diabetic complications, it may reflect methodological difficulties and trial design errors. 

The current methodology to determine residues of alachlor, acetochlor, propachlor, and butachlor in crops and animal products was developed over the last two decades by researchers at the Monsanto Company. These herbicides degrade rapidly in plants and animals to numerous metabolites that can be hydrolyzed to common aniline moieties. Little to no parent herbicide is found as intact residue in crops and animal products therefore, the residue methodology focuses on the determination of the common moieties that are derived from the parent herbicides and their metabolites. Initially, gas chromatography (GC) with flame ionization detection, nitrogen-phosphorus... 

In the following sections, the nature of chloroacetanilide residues in plants, animal products, water, and soil and the rationale for the analytical methodology that is presented are briefly summarized. Procedures for representative methods are included in detail. The methods presented in this article are among the best available at this time, but analytical technology continues to improve. Future directions for acetanilide residue methodology for environmental monitoring are discussed at the end of the article. 

Analytical methodology for crops, food, feed, and animal tissues... 

---