Alarm substance

Verheijen F. and Reutte R. (1969). The effect of alarm substances on predation among cyprodinids. Anim Behav 17, 551-554. 

Alarm substances in fish are extremely potent extract from 1 cm minnow skin creates an active space of over 58 000 liters of water (Smith and Lawrence, 1989). 

In addition to behavior changes, exposure to the alarm odor also has physiological effects. For instance, in pearl dace, Semotilus margarita, the levels of plasma cortisol and glucose increase 15 minutes after the alarm and are back to normal after 5 hours. The brain concentrations of dopamine, norepinephrine, 5-hydroxytryptamine, or tryptophan did not change (Rehnberg et al., 1987). The fish recovered physiologically much sooner than the behavioral activation For example. Von Frisch (1941) observed that minnows avoided the site of their encounter with alarm substance for many hours, even days. 

The alarm substance (Schreckstoff) has served to test Hamilton s selfish-herd theory. Fourteen dace, Leuciscus leuciscus, were habituated to minnow schreckstoff, until they no longer responded. They were then joined by a single, naive minnow. Upon adding schreckstoff to the water, the single minnow was alarmed while the school was not. The single minnow moved into the school and became surrounded by other fish on all sides (Krause, 1993). Among alarmed fish, it is everybody for himself. ... 

Reed, J. P. (1969). Alarm substances and fright reaction in some fishes from the Southeastern United States. Transactions of the American Eisheries Society 98,664-668. 

Scott, G. R., Sloman, K. A., Rouleau, C., and Wood, C. M. (2003). Cadmium disrupts behavioural and physiological responses to alarm substance in juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Journal of Experimental Biology 206,1779-1790. 

Vernet-Maury, E. (1980). Trimethylthiazoline in fox feces a natural alarming substance for the rat. InProceedings ofthe Vllth International Symposium on Olfaction and Taste, ed. H. van der Starre, p. 407. London IRL Press. 

The cabbage worm butterfly Pieris rapae crucivora and the sulfur-colored Catopsilia crocale are both found to afford the anticancer component isoxanthopterin (67) (57). In addition, isoxanthopterin (67) from the skin of the European minnow, Phoxinus phoxinus, elicits the fright reaction and hence acts as the alarm substance (52). 

Pfeiffer, W., The distribution of fright reaction and alarm substance cells in fishes, Copeia, 1977, 653. 

Atema, J. and Stenzler, D., 1977. Alarm substance of the marine mud snail Nassarius obsoletus biological characterization and possible evolution. J. Chem. Ecol, 3 173— 187. 

Similarly, crayfish reduce feeding and movement when exposed to hemolymph of damaged conspecifics (Acquistapace et al. 2005). Hemolymph loses its bioactivity when tested 24 h after its extraction, but activity is maintained if it is treated with the antioxidant L-ascorbic acid. This suggests that crayfish alarm molecules are degraded by oxidation. Microbial activity alone did not rapidly degrade the alarm substances because hemolymph activity still declined after 24 h even if extracted and preserved in sterile conditions. However, when hemolymph molecules of less than 5 kDa were fractionated from hemolymph, they retained strong bioactivity even after 24 h at 20°C, possibly because the 5 kDa fractioning eliminates enzymes. It seems probable that alarm substances may be... 

Acquistapace P, Calamai L, Hazlett BA, Gherardi F (2005) Source of alarm substances in crayfish and their preliminary chemical characterization. Can J Zool 83 1624-1630... 

Chivers DP, Wisenden BD, Hindman CJ, Michalak TA, Kusch RC, Kaminskyj SGW, Jack KL, Ferrari MCO, Pollock RJ, Halbgewachs CF, Pollock MS, Alemadi S, James CT, Savaloja RK, Goater CP, Corwin A, Mirza RS, Kiesecker JM, Brown GE, Adrian JC Jr, Krone PH, Blaustein AR, Mathis A (2007) Epidermal alarm substance cells of fishes are maintained by non-alarm functions possible defence against pathogens, parasites and UVB radiation. Proc Biol Sci 274 2611-2620... 

Williams (1964, 1992), however, argued that there are considerable problems in explaining the evolution of an alarm pheromone. It was assumed that individuals produced alarm substance to warn their school or species of danger, but schools of fish are not composed of closely related individuals (Naish et al. 1993). Magurran et al. (1996) further demonstrated that fright responses in fish were elicited in a context-dependent manner. The alarm responses were likely exaggerated in the laboratory condition where the opportunities for escape were largely reduced. In the natural environment, alarm substances did not produce adaptive behaviors. In crustaceans, behaviors similar to the alarm response in fish can be elicited by the reception of injured conspecifics (Hazlett, Chap. 18). 

Crustaceans and fishes share similar habitats but have evolved different chemical communication systems that are adaptive to their life styles. Some fish and crustacean species use alarm substances to avoid predators some use migratory... 

Insect defence substances see alarm substances, al-lelochemicals, semiochemicals, warning substances (odors), defensive secretions. 

Isopentenyl acetate see alarm substances. Isopilosine see pilocarpine. 

Undecane. HjC-inflammable liquid mp. -26°C, bp. 196°C occurs in some turpentine oils and in crude oil it is also known as an alarm substance of red ants. U. acts as a sexual pheromone for the alpine ant Formica lugu-bris. ... 

Warning tubatancet (odors). W. s. are used by animals, similar to warning colors, to intimidate opponents. Particularly strong-smelling, alkylated methoxy-pyrazines have been discussed as the W. s. of certain insects see also alarm substances, defensive secretions. 

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