Adverse effects on humans and animals

Nivalenol (NIV) belongs to the B-type trichothecene mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species. The occurrence of NIV contamination is limited to certain areas around the world, such as Japan, Korea, New Zealand, and a part of Europe, where it has had adverse effects on human and animal health. This chapter focuses on the mycology, occurrence, biosynthesis, toxicology, methods of analysis, and risk assessment of NIV. 

Since these pollutants resist to biodegradation, powerful oxidation methods have to be searched to remove them from waters, thus avoiding their potential adverse health effects on humans and animals (Brillas et al. 2004, 2005 Flox et al. 2006a Sires et al. 2006b, 2007 Skoumal et al. 2006). 

Just as zinc deficiency has been associated with adverse effects in humans and animals, overexposures to zinc also have been associated with toxic effects. This chapter contains a description of the toxic effects that have been associated with exposures to high levels of zinc and selected zinc compounds by the inhalation, oral, and dermal routes. Specifically, zinc chloride, zinc oxide, zinc sulfate, and zinc sulfide will be considered. Other zinc compounds are discussed in this chapter whenever data regarding these compounds add relevant information to the discussion on zinc. Any general comments regarding the lack of data on zinc refer to both zinc and its compounds. 

Acute effect—An adverse effect on humans or animals, with symptoms developing rapidly and quickly becoming a crisis resulting from a short-term exposure. 

A risk estimate indicates the likelihood of occurrence of the different types of health or enviromiiental effects in exposed populations. Risk assessment should include both human healtli and environmental evaluations (i.e., impacts on ecosystems). Ecological impacts include actual and potential effects on plants and animal (otlier than domesticated species). The numbers produced from the risk characterization, representing tlie probability of adverse health effects being caused, must be evaluated. 

This sludge contains organic substances (Table 16.3) also heavy metals. The possible deleterious effects to humans and animals of these applications to land are discussed above. Clearly, to avoid adverse effects on crops, animals and humans, control must be exerted on both the organic contaminant content of the applied sewage and its application rate and frequency. 

Concerns about chemicals in the environment have focused major attention on the possible consequence for humans, animals, and whole ecosystems. However, we still lack back basic knowledge and procedures for evaluating the potential impacts of chemicals, compound mixtures, or artificial concentrations of natural substances that have an adverse effect on human health and the environment. Such knowledge will be essential for developing products with adequate safeguards against unwanted side effects. 

Based on the observations of adverse effects on reproduction in animals exposed to PBBs, the possibility that PBBs may cause reproductive harm in humans cannot be refuted and suggests that exposure of women to PBBs prior to and during the early phases of pregnancy may be of particular concern. 

In general, the adverse effects of radium are believed to be the consequence of the radiation emitted from the element itself and its daughter products. Because there is already a considerable amount of information on the effects of radiation on humans and animals derived from studies on the effects of the atomic bomb and of therapeutic x-ray and gamma-ray treatments of malignancies, the experimental animal studies with radium have made no attempt to duplicate this information. They have instead concentrated on radium s most sensitive endpoint, cancer. For example, it can be predicted that the beta and gamma rays emitted by a radium source will produce local radiation burns and tissue damage when the source is placed on human or animal skin, hence there have been no valid reasons to conduct such studies with radium. 

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