Academically established methods

These are tests that are established within the academic community as monitors of chemical exposure and chemical effect. Unlike the procedures discussed in section 6.2, standards do not exist for these tests. Development instead can be tracked via a series of scientific papers. Some methods are long established in soil ecology and ecotoxicology. Examples include invertebrate bioassays, soil enzyme assays and litterbags. In contrast, a number of methods, such as bait lamina and some biochemical assays (e.g. lysosomal membrane stability), have been developed more recently but have passed quickly into widespread use. 

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Of the other established methods one can be less certain. Electrochemical methods, other than ion selective electrodes, seem to be practised more in academic laboratories than industrial, and are prone to fundamental problems relating to electrode contamination and chemical interferences. Nuclear methods would seem to have reached their apogee (if one classifies radio immuno assay as biological rather than nuclear) and the same seems to be true of thermal methods. This is not to say that these methods will not continue to be used and to be important. It is a comment that despite the missionary work of numerous adherents of these methods, one notes in the large industrial laboratories much more application of and enthusiasm for spectroscopy, chromatography and biological methods. 

Mercury is very toxic and demands a neat and tidy working practice. Polarography had gained a bad reputation by the 1950 s in academic institutions, due mainly to careless use of mercury and the growing awareness of health hazards. This in turn has contributed to a resistance to the introduction of newer electro-analytical methods using mercury even when they are competitive or better than established methods. This is a pity because there should be no hazard provided reasonable care is taken. 

Cl has established a continuous access to the latest scientific developments. Together with academic partners, methods have been adapted to better address the real Cl questions of the drag discovery process. 

Asymmetric synthesis is a stimulating academic challenge, but since it has become clear that most chiral drugs can be administered safely only in the enantiomerically pure form, the industrial need for asymmetric methods has made research in asymmetric synthesis absolutely necessary [5]. This has driven a renaissance in the discipline of organic chemistry, because all of the old-established reactions need to be reinvestigated for their application in asymmetric synthesis [6]. This has also applied... 

The propene split-off route to generate intermediates is well-established, cf. Brown, R.F.C. "Pyrolytic Methods in Organic Chemistry" Academic Press New York 1980. It has been applied by our group to prepare e.g. silatoluene (Bock, H. Bowling, R.A. Solouki, B. Barton, T.J. Burns, G.T. J. 7 m. Chem. Soc. 1980, 102, 429), silabenzene (Solouki, B. Rosmus, P. Bock, H. Maier, G. Angew. Chem. 1980, 2, 56 Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 

The methods used for catalyst library design are quite divers. Industrial companies, like Symix, Avantium, hte GmbH, Bayer AG are using their own proprietary methods. In academic research the Genetic Algorithm (GA) is widely applied [11,12]. Recently Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) and its combination with GA has been reported [13,14]. In these studies ANNs have been used for the establishment of composition-activity relationships. 

Studies on the solvent extraction of actinide ions by different combinations of extractants have been reviewed. Various equilibria involved in the extraction processes and the formation of the extract-able complexes have been considered along with their equilibrium constant data. Various methods which are useful in establishing the composition and the nature of the extractable complexes are presented. The data on isolation and structural studies of some complexes, involved in synergic extraction, are also included. A brief description of the different areas in which synergic extraction is finding application is also given. Many combinations of extractants, where the studies conducted are very few but, which are likely to yield enhanced extractions are indicated. Areas of research, both from the academic and applied points of view, which require attention are suggested. 

This book provides broad coverage of the use of carbohydrates in organic synthesis, at postgraduate student level. Each chapter describes established and widely used methods and approaches, but also covers recent and promising reports. Many citations to the primary literature are provided. It is hoped, therefore, that this book will also be of use to synthetic organic chemists and carbohydrate chemists in academic and industrial laboratories. 

Of all natural philosophers, Hippocrates best incorporated the Calvinist way of doing research. And it was to Hippocrates, in Boerhaave s words, that all the later authors owed everything that was good in their work. 30 Hence Boerhaave recommended that his students practice chemistry after the Hippocratic manner. This means that Hippocrates was Boerhaave s first and foremost role model in his academic pursuits. So even though Boerhaave presented Francis Bacon as a role model for the natural philosophy of his day (Bacon s experimental method, after all, exactly fitted Boerhaave s Hippocratic model), for Boerhaave it was a Calvinist Hippocrates who, before Bacon, made observation central to medicine, thereby establishing the right method for natural philosophy as a whole.31... 

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