A Problem of Semantics

Such designations of stable and unstable colloids are very relative and must be made in the context of the apphcation in question. It may be, for example, that a colloid that maintains its characteristics for two days would be considered stable in one application, while another would require that a minimum of two years pass without change. Obviously, then, one must be careful when discussing colloidal stability and instability. From this point on in the discussion, unless otherwise indicated, the kinetic (rather than energetic) definition of stability will be employed in its most general sense, it being assumed that all (or almost all) colloids are in reality metastable systems. Also, it must be kept in mind that stability in the present context is used in terms of 

---

Researchers have been trying to explain how retinal (or retinol) are chromophores in the visual system for more than 40 years with remarkably little success. Dartnall et. al. even claimed that the same retinal-based chromophore accounts for both the broad photopic spectral sensitivity of the eye as well as all three of the color-sensitive photodetectors found in the eye. There may be a problem of semantics related to this claim. In an attempt to synthesize an analog of rhodopsin, they formed a protonated azomethine using retinal and a simple amine, n-butylamine the resulting peak absorption was at 440 nm. It was hoped the material would have a peak near 500 nm (see further discussion below). Its absorption coefficient was not specified in Zollinger. Although this chromophore exhibits apeak in its absorption near that of the S-channel, it does not explain how the chromophores of the other spectral channels are formed. It is an irrelevant compound. 

Two-Dimensional Representation of Chemical Structures. The lUPAC standardization of organic nomenclature allows automatic translation of a chemical s name into its chemical stmcture, or, conversely, the naming of a compound based on its stmcture. The chemical formula for a compound can be translated into its stmcture once a set of semantic rules for representation are estabUshed (26). The semantic rules and their appHcation have been described (27,28). The inverse problem, generating correct names from chemical stmctures, has been addressed (28) and explored for the specific case of naming condensed benzenoid hydrocarbons (29,30). 

It becomes a problem in semantics to set a time limit for "development within which a process can be considered "spontaneous or "instantaneous . These two words seem to apply well to such extremely sensitive compounds as Nitrogen Triodide and Cupric Azide, which explode at the slightest touch when dry and, in addition, explode at a fairly low temperature. Attempts to correlate initiation in such cases with the attainment of a certain temperature seem unrealistic, especially in view of differences between relative sensitivity of different compounds to mechanical and thermal influences. For example, Mercuric Azide is so sensitive to impact that it explodes even under water, hut its heat sensitiveness is about the same as that for Cadmium Azide, which has been reported not to explode by percussion (Ref 5) Information about susceptibility of different explosives to spontaneous detonation is highly important from the viewpoint of safety. In Refs which follow are listed examples of spontaneous detonations of substances, some of them previously considered safe in this respect... 

While it may appear to be a matter of semantics, the author has become convinced that whether IHC is viewed as a stain or as an assay , can play an important role in establishing the proper mind set of the laboratory staff and the pathologists. The IHC method is regarded by many as simply a stain it produces a visible tinctorial reaction within the tissue section. However, IHC should not be regarded as simply another special stain , like a PAS stain or a silver stain. As already noted, IHC is essentially an ELISA method applied to a tissue section. In this respect, when correctly performed, IHC has the potential to perform as a reproducible and quantitative tissue based ELISA assay much more than a simple stain. That the IHC method mostly does not perform to this level, reflects faults in the application of the method, specifically inconsistent sample preparation, lack of reference or calibration standards, and inadequate validation of reagents (7, 8). The use of RTUs does not finally solve these problems, but for reasons that will be discussed below, can lead to increased reproducibility and consistency in a practical... 

L. Tondl Problems of Semantics. A Contribution to the Analysis of the Language of Science. 

Although individuation is a philosophic term, most philosophers have not paid attention to the problem of individuation addressed here that is, how experimental scientists determine the boundaries of a single object. This problem is notorious in the experimental sciences, which often study invisible objects accessible only via experimentally produced traces and require the interpretative work of ascribing these traces to one or more objects. Philosophers have studied individuals and individuation in quite different contexts. Dupre discussed the problem of establishing rules for assigning individuals to a species (see Dupre [1993] pp. 27 and 44-53). Kuno Lorenz considered individuation as a problem of reference that can be treated by means of formal semantics (see Mittelstrass [1980-1996] vol. II pp. 227-229). Munitz and others have focused on the problem of identity of individual entities (see Munitz [1971]). For historians of science, a more useful philosophical discussion of problems of individuation may be that offered by Strawson [1979]. 

We read in Genesis that slime (bitumen) was the preferred mortar of the builders of the Tower of Babel—the first adhesives technologists to have problems of semantics. Bitumen and tree pitches were the sealants for the vessels that plied the Mediterranean. In the days of the prophets, as now, the adhesive had to be specific for the adherend. He that teacheth a fool is like one that glueth potsherds together, we are advised in the Apocrypha (Jesus ben Sirach, Ecclesiasticus, Chapter 22). Educators are still struggling with the first problem, but the latter has been solved with epoxy adhesives. 

It is a matter of semantics as to whether these problems should be described as "market failures." Whatever one chooses to call them, problems of realizing and... 

Only one stereotype can be attached to an element. UML permits a stereotype to be defined as a combination of several others. This arrangement causes problems with combinatorial explosion as well as lack of semantics. 

Cognitive deficits in Alzheimer s disease Attention deficits are a core feature of Alzheimer s disease (Lawrence and Sahakian 1995). Problems arise primarily from divided and disengaging/shifting attention and less from focusing of attention (Nebes 1997). Language deficits are seen early in the course of Alzheimer s disease. While grammar is relatively intact, there is a deficit in expression and comprehension of semantic meaning. 

Sensory. Although the basis for multivariate analysis was developed in the early 1900 s, its use in sensory analysis is relatively recent. These types of statistics, however, have been valuable in dealing with two fundamental problems which occur in sensory testing. First there are difficulties encountered when one attempts to breakdown complex sensory parameters into single semantic terms which can be rated, and second it is difficult to achieve the goal of every panelist having the same internal understanding of each term. Approaches to minimize these difficulties included 1) evaluation of semantic terms used by the panel to determine if the variables are unique or can be condensed to a new set of unique variables 2) evaluation of the panelists use of semantic terms to determine inconsistencies as well as the relative importance of the terms to food quality or discrimination.(8)... 

In the electron-diffraction jargon it is often referred to the framework vibration in contrast to the large amplitude motion. The idea is to try to separate the large amplitude motion, as for example a torsional motion, from the small amplitude vibration also taking place in rigid molecules. This practical approach does not lead to semantic difficulties, but the approach, of course, meets with the well known difficulty in any theoretical treatment of this kind, namely the problem of separability of the energy and consequently of the Hamiltonian operator. 

Another new, or at least exacerbated, class of faults is that of mismatches at the interfaces between component systems. These are typically semantic (e.g., confusion between Fahrenheit and Celsius) not just syntactic, or due to fundamental policy incompatibilities. (There is in many quarters a present assumption that a middleware infrastructure facilitating the use of Web Services, XML, etc., will largely solve the problems of creating systems-of-systems, but such facilities mainly help deal with syntax issues.)... 

Like any new field, chemotherapy of plant disease has its semantic problems. When we helped initiate it in 1940, we called it chemotherapy in line with our medical confreres. Literally it means, of course, chemical cure, but it is given a connotation of internal therapy as well. There is a strong tendency, particularly in Britain to label it "systemic fungicide/ The semantic problem here is that not all chemotherapeutants are systemic fungicides. Even benomyl, the leading contender, is not a true fungicide. It is a fungistat. 

When the accumulation of data makes semantic phenomena familiar, however, a new phase will necessarily begin, since biologists will have to face the problem of accounting for the very existence of organic codes in nature. It is unlikely that an answer may come from a biology which has systematically ignored these codes, and which accepted the genetic code only because it could not do otherwise. 

---