Whole organism level effects

In view of these complexities, environmental studies that seek to verify proposed cause-effect relationships between contamination and response need to be carefully designed to avoid bias and misunderstanding. Most environmental assessments adopt a multi-tiered approach to testing, in which combinations of biological responses (biomarkers) are measured in tissue samples, body fluids or at the whole organism level to indicate exposure to or adverse effects of contamination.8. Auffret and colleagues60 surveyed Pacific oysters from the Atlantic coast of Brittany after the Erika oil spill between... 

The results of in vitro exposures to different classes of chemicals can be useful when assessing the direct effects of chemicals on certain immunological endpoints, differences in susceptibility among species (at the cellular level), and differences in susceptibility within a species but between different immune functions. However, such an approach on its own cannot take into account such factors at the whole-organism level including exposure, absorption, metabolism and excretion, the built-in redundancy of the immune system, as well as host resistance. 

Carbohydrate metabolism the involvement of Mn(II) with key enzymes of glucose storage, mobilization, and catabolic and anabolic metabolism is now well established. Effects at the cell, organ, and whole organism levels are less well understood, especially those related to interaction of Mn(II) with hormonal systems and receptors. 

The manifestation of adverse effects in biological systems is the result of perturbations of normal function or homeostasis, which involves a complex network of biochemical reactions that have evolved to maximize efficiency at the cellular, organ, tissue and whole organism level. These reactions are governed by the fundamental chemical principles that are part of typical chemistry curricula. Therefore, it is a natural extension to disclose opportunities to demonstrate the relationship between structure and toxicity. 

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