Water hypersaline

Chloride minerals are rarely found in coal in the form of solid species because of high solubility of sodium, calcium and trace metal chlorides in coal strata waters. The "inherent" water content of coal is related to its porosity and thus the moisture content of lignite deposits can exceed 40 per cent decreasing to below 5 per cent in fully bituminous coals (11). Chlorides, chiefly associated with sodium and calcium constitute the bulk of water-soluble matter in British bituminous coals (12). Skipsey (13) has found that the distribution of chlorine coals was closely related to the salinity of mine waters. Hypersaline brines with concentrations of dissolved solids up to 200 kg m occur in several of the British Coalfields. 

Group Fresh water Brackish water Sea water Hypersaline water... 

Since sewage seed does not compare favourably with salt-tolerant bacteria in determining the BOD of saline waste waters, a salt-tolerant bacteria seed should be used to ensure an accurate and reproducible BOD value hypersaline waste waters are being tested. 

Hydrothermal Of the hot-water systems that are present at acUve mid-ocean spreading centers. Hydroxyl A chemical group composed of an oxygen atom bound to a hydrogen atom (i.e., -OH). Hypersaline Water with a salinity in excess of that at which halite will spontaneously precipitate. Hypoxic Waters with dissolved oxygen concentraUons less than 2 to 3 ppm (2mL/L). 

Fulvic acid was isolated in Big Soda Lake above and below the chem-ocline, which occurs at 34-m depth. Water near the lake surface has moderate salinity and is oxygenated, whereas water below the chemocline is hypersaline and anoxic (17). In spite of these environmental differences the chemical character of the fulvic acid from above or below the chemocline did not vary, as determined by elemental analyses and NMR spectrometry. 

Not all measures of salinity convey the same degree of salinity. For example, compare Orca Basin, the Great Salt Lake, the Dead Sea, and Basque Lake (Table 5.1). All four of these waters contain about the same salinity % [25.1-26.4% salt (wt/wt)]. Note, however, that Basque Lake has a much more favorable (for life) aw (0.919) compared with Orca Basin (0.774), Great Salt Lake (0.776), and, especially, the Dead Sea (0.690). The impact of salts on life depends on the anions and cations and their charges and molecular weight. Bacterial sulfate reduction occurs with salt concentrations up to 24% (Oren 1988), but chloride salt solutions at such concentrations deals much more harshly with life. Only the most halophilic organisms can live in the Dead Sea (Table 4.2). The Dead Sea was called dead because it was only in 1936 that life forms (e.g., bacteria, algae, yeast) were first isolated from this hypersaline water (Ventosa et al. 1999). 

The other major reactant in Equation 1 is sulfate (SO42 ). Sulfate concentrations are highly variable in lake waters, from 3 x 10 5 mol/L in soft-water lakes in crystalline-rock drainage basins to 1.6 mol/L in hypersaline lakes (2.). In productive, freshwater lakes, sulfate reduction typically goes nearly to completion (5.). As sulfate concentrations increase, amounts of organic matter eventually become insufficient for complete sulfate reduction to occur. This is the case in "normal" marine sediment where a linear relation between total reduced sulfur and organic-carbon concentrations is observed. Sea-water sulfate concentration is 0.028 mol/L and the ratio of total reduced sulfur to organic-carbon concentrations (often referred to as S/C) in marine sediment is 0.33 ( ). ... 

Gorbushina, A. A. Krumbein, W. E. (1999). Poikilotrophic response ofmicro-orgamsms to shifting alkalimty, salinity, temperatme and water potential. In Microbiology and Biogeochemistry of Hypersaline Environments, ed. A. Oren. London CRC Press, pp. 75-86. 

Typical habitats are anoxic sediments or bottom waters of freshwater, marine, or hypersaline aquatic environments thermophilic species occur in hot springs and submarine hydrothermal vents. 

Desnues, C., Michotey, V. D., Wieland, A., Zhizang, C., Fourcans, A., Duran, R., et al. (2007). Seasonal and diel distributions of denitrifying and bacterial communities in a hypersaline microbial mat (Camargue, Prance). Water Research 41, 3407-3419. 

Although bromide and chloride are both monovalent anions of similar ionic radii (Br = 1.96 A, Cl = 1.81 A), Cl is strongly preferentially partitioned over Br into sodium, potassium, and magnesium halogen salts during precipitation (Hanor, 1987 Siemann and Schramm, 2000). During the initial evaporation of seawater, both bromide and chloride increase in concentration in the residual hypersaline waters, and the Br/Cl ratio of these waters does... 

Fernandez H., Vazquez F., and Millero F. J. (1982) The density and composition of hypersaline waters of a Mexican Lagoon. Limnol. Oceanogr. 27, 315-321. 

Hypersaline highly saline, usually with respect to sea water. 

The concentration of trace metals by volcanic input, by the reflux of hypersaline waters, or by other extraordinary metallic ion enrichment of the Phosphoria sea are not required according to data and interpretations given by Calvert (30 p. 201-212). 

Open-ocean waters have a narrow range of salinities (32-37) and most are near 35. In estuaries, values fall to less than 1 approaching the freshwater end-member. In hypersaline environments salinities can exceed those of seawater, reaching values greater than 300. 

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