Viruses defined

Ping, L. H. and Lemon, S. M (1992) Antigenic structure of human hepatitis-A virus defined by analysis of escape mutants selected against murine monoclonal antibodies. J Virol 66,2208-2216... 

The normal immune response is modeled using antibodies A, B cells, helpers H, suppressors S and antigens, or viruses, V. Each of these concentrations can be either high (= 1) or low 0). The dynamics is defined as follows ... 

Deng H, Liu R, Ellmeier W, Choe S, Unutmaz D, Burkhart M, Di Marzio P, Marmon S, Sutton RE, Hill CM, Davis CB, Peiper SC, Schall TJ, Littman DR, Landau NR (1996) Identification of a major co-receptor for primary isolates of HIV-1. Nature 381 661-666 Derdeyn CA, Decker JM, Sfakianos JN, Wu X, O Brien WA, Ratner L, Kappes JC, Shaw GM, Hunter E (2000) Sensitivity of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 to the fusion inhibitor T-20 is modulated by coreceptor specificity defined by the V3 loop of gpl20. J Virol 74 8358-8367... 

Initially, it was assumed that the HlV-1 population is infinite, evolution is deterministic, and antiretroviral resistance development is definite (Coffin 1995). However, our research amongst others has demonstrated that the effective population size, defined as the average number of HIV variants that produces infectious progeny is relatively small (Leigh Brown 1997 Leigh Brown and Richman 1997 Nijhnis et al. 1998). This can be explained because the majority of virus particles that are produced harbor deleterious mutations resulting in noninfectious virus. Also limited target cell availability and inactivation of potentially infectious viruses by the host... 

Taken together, the genetic barrier cannot be simply defined by the sum of resistance mutations, but also the genetic background of the virus, the variation in the viral population, interaction of mutations, and their impact on viral replication play a role. 

The multiple sites that serve as origins for DNA replication in eukaryotes are poorly defined except in a few animal viruses and in yeast. However, it is clear that initiation is regulated both spatially and temporaUy, since clusters of adjacent sites initiate rephcation synchronously. There are suggestions that functional domains of chromatin replicate as intact units, implying that the origins of rephcation are specificaUy located with respect to transcription units. 

Brodt HR, Kamps BS et al (1997) Changing incidence of AlDS-defining iUnesses in the era of antiretroviral combination therapy. AIDS 11(14) 1731-1738 Calabrese LH, Proffitt MR et al (1987) Acute infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) associated with acute brachial neuritis and exanthematous rash. Ann Intern Med 107(6) 849-851... 

In each of the assays of potency the amount of the immunoglobulin and the amount of a corresponding standard preparation that are required to neutralize the infectivity or other biological activity of a defined amount of virus or to neutralize a defined amount of a bacterial toxin are determined. The two determined amounts and the assigned unitage of the standard preparation are then used to calculate the potency of the immunoglobulin in International Units (lU). ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. 

Virus genera are designated by terms ending in - virus. Thus, among the Poxviridae those poxviruses which infect fowl are called by the genus name Avipoxvirus. Note that frequently in the animal viruses, the genus is defined based on the host which the virus infects. 

When life is to be defined, it is necessary for the purposes of biogenesis research to limit the discussion to the simplest life forms. This type of reduction is necessary in order to be able to make a clear division between inanimate and animate objects. Even for reduced systems , the boundaries between the two become unclear, as shown by the example of viruses. A definition of minimal life makes it possible to ignore the complex properties of higher living organisms, such as consciousness, intelligence or ethics. 

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