Vertebrates and Other Higher Animals

Vertebrates and Other Higher Animals Naja naja atra, 43 Sphyrna lewini, 43, 44 Strongylocentrotus drobachiensis, 44 

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Marine Vertebrate and Other Higher Animal Biosynthetic Products... 

Copper exposures at 20 pg/L or higher induce degenerating effects on the olfactory receptor cells in fish (Saucier and Astic 1995). Since it is a normal process that receptor cells are regenerating in the olfactory epithelium of fish and other vertebrates as long as basal cells are present, new functional olfactory cells will be continuously produced and the animal can recover its sense of smell (e.g. Zippel 1993). There will, however, be problems if the fish remains in contaminated water and the olfactory epithelium does not acclimate and protect the receptor cells from metal toxicity (e.g. by metal-lothioneins, mucus production). It has been shown that olfactory receptor neurons can be a transport route of metal ions and organic molecules to the olfactory bulbs and the brain in vertebrates, fish included, with severe disturbing effects on the function of the CNS (e.g. Tjalve and Henriksson 1999 Persson et al. 2002). 

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