Vanadium production

The United States dominated world vanadium production for ah uses until the late 1960s when several countries, notably the former USSR, expanded production significantly. At about the same time, the United States shifted from being a net exporter to a net importer this situation continues. In 1978, the United States supphed 15% of the total world production but consumed 23%. World production values and anticipated capacities are shown in Table 5 (21) U.S. production and demand, as weh as forecasts, are shown in Table 6 (21). 

Vanadium Vanadium product recovery process recovered... 

Fig. 1. Generalized flow sheet of minerals processing to vanadium products (1).

The bulk of world vanadium production is derived as a by-product or coproduct ia processiag iron, titanium, and uranium ores, and, to a lesser extent, from phosphate, bauxite, and chromium ores and the ash, fume, or coke from burning or refining petroleum. Total world production of V20 was ca 131 X 10 lbs in 1996. 

Conversion of fused pentoxide to alloy additives is by far the largest use of vanadium compounds. Air-dried pentoxide, ammonium vanadate, and some fused pentoxide, representing ca 10% of primary vanadium production, are used as such, purified, or converted to other forms for catalytic, chemical, ceramic, or specialty appHcations. The dominant single use of vanadium chemicals is in catalysts (see Catalysis). Much less is consumed in ceramics and electronic gear, which are the other significant uses (see Batteries). Many of the numerous uses reported in the Hterature are speculative, proposed. 

The form in which vanadium metal product is obtained is determined by the physicochemical conditions prevalent during reduction. This factor, elaborated below for vanadium production in ingot and powder forms, is typically illustrative of the calciothermy as... 

Vanadium product Vanadium Vanadium product Reduction... 

Despite being a net importer of raw vanadium materials, the United States has remained an exporter of processed vanadium products. The United States exports vanadium principally in the form of vanadium pentoxide, which is the primary source for the production of chemicals, catalysts, alloys, and other vanadium compounds. Vanadium pentoxide and catalysts containing vanadium pentoxide have accounted for between 61% (1987) and 82% (1984) of all domestic exports. In 1984, the United States exported a total of 4,498 tons of vanadium. Since then, exports have declined, reaching a level of 2,486 tons in 1986 and remaining fairly constant through 1987. The major importers of vanadium from the United States are Canada, the Federal Republic of Germany, Japan, and Mexico. These are followed by Taiwan and the Republic of Korea (Hilliard 1987). 

Production, Import/Export, Use, and Disposal. Companies involved in the vanadium production industry (see Table 4-1), methods used in extraction and processing (Brooks 1986 Browning 1969 Byerrum et al. 1974 Grayson 1983 Weast 1969), uses of various vanadium compounds (Brooks... 

A major commercial use of vanadium has been in steel production (ca. 85% of vanadium production). Vanadium steel, vhich contains 0.1-3% vanadium is tough, strong and heat-resistant, and vithstands strain, vibration and shock. The second largest use area is in nonferrous alloys and nickel-based superalloys for the aerospace industry. Other applications are vanadium containing alloys for batteries and grain refining of aluminum alloys ( 9% of the vanadium production). 

Figure 13.1 is a generalized graph showing vanadium production from the principal sources for every tenth year from 1910 to 1970. Its purpose is to show the large increase in production in response to demand since 1950. 

Domestic supplies of vanadium are obtained from a deposit in Arkansas that is mined for vanadium alone from some deposits in the western states that yield coproduct uranium and vanadium and from slags derived from making elemental phosphorus from phosphate rock mined in Idaho. The vanadium-production potential of these deposits does not appear to be adequate to satisfy long-range domestic requirements. 

Figure 13.2 shows domestic vanadium production and consumption 1960 to 1968, and the domestic maximum and minimum forecast demand for vanadium from 1968 to the year 2000, as estimated by Griffith. Cumulative requirements at the maximum demand rate from 1968 to 2000 are 520,000 short tons of vanadium. 

Figure 13.2. Graph showing domestic vanadium production...

Vanadium has an abundance in the earth s crust of about 0.2% (Clark, 1975). It is quite eveniy distributed in minerais. A few commerciai deposits contain more than 3% vanadium pentoxide, but normai concentrations are 0.1 - 1% (NAS. 1974). The main sources of vanadium are vanadium suiphide (patronite), carnotite and titanomagnetite ores. Many crude oiis contain considerabie amounts (even about 0.1%) of vanadium, notably those from Venezuela. The ash obtained from burning vanadium-containing oils may have many tens of per cent vanadium. Vanadium can be extracted from fuel ashes. A considerable amount of vanadium production is based on the extraction of converter slag in the steel industry, which can contain 2-10% (Michels, 1973) or even 25% (NAS 1974) vanadium pentoxide. Vanadium is usually manufactured by converting the vanadium minerals to a water- soluble form (Levanto, 1969). 

Figure 7-26. Vanadium production by direct decomposition of pentoxide (V2O5) in atmospheric-pressure thermal plasma. Composition of products (1) VO2 (2) VO (3) O2 (4) [O] X 0.1 (5) V+ (6) V...

Figure 7-29. Vanadium production by direct decomposition of trioxide (V2O3) in atmospheric-pressure thermal plasma. Energy cost of vanadium production as function of specific energy input (1) absolute quenching (2) ideal quenching (3) super-ideal quenching.

A vanadium electrode is oxidized electrically. If the mass of the electrode decreases by 114 mg during the passage of 650 coulombs, what is the oxidation state of the vanadium product ... 

Vanadium is widely distributed in the earth s crust having an abundance of 0.02% by weight. It is found combined in various minerals, coal, and petroleum. It is present in phosphate rock, in some iron ores, and in certain cmde oils in the form of organic complexes. An important source of the vanadium-bearing mineral patronite, which was found in coal at Mina Raga, Peru, has been materially depleted [12]. The world leaders in vanadium production are the United States, the former Soviet Union, South Africa, Namibia, Finland, Norway, and Chile [13]. 

In 2001 vanadium products, corresponding to about 58000 tonnes of vanadium were produced. China accounted for half of this quantity. South Africa for 30%. 

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