Troposphere over oceans

Singh et al. (1988) average concentrations measured in lower troposphere over the land and ocean in Colorado and California. 

Penkett, S. A, N. J. Blake, P. Lightman, A. R. W. Marsh, P. Anwyl, and G. Butcher, The Seasonal Variation of Nonmethane Hydrocarbons in the Free Troposphere over the North Atlantic Ocean Possible Evidence for Extensive Reaction of Hydrocarbons with the Nitrate Radical, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 2865-2885 (1993). 

Although most evidence indicates that the measured BrO is located in the free troposphere, these data do not exclude other contributions, e.g., from the marine boundary layer. Especially over ocean regions the sensitivity of GOME to BrO in lower atmospheric layers in reduced and a contribution of BrO in the MBL as measured by Leser et al. (2003) cannot be excluded (see, e.g.. 

The major source of zinc in the troposphere over the ocean is the microbial zinc methylation in marine water (Craig, 1980). Additionally, abont 1 x 10 tons/year is related to dust-borne zinc transported from the land areas. Intnrn, 0.26 x 10 tons of air-borne zinc is transported annually from the ocean troposphere to the troposphere over terrestrial ecosystems and deposited there. 

Knap AH, Binkley KS. 1991. Chlorinated organic compounds in the troposphere over the western North Atlantic Ocean measured by aircraft. Atmos Environ 25A 1507-1516. 

Tropospheric O3 concentrations appear to be increasing as a result of increased direct emissions of NO, hydrocarbons, and CH4. Because of the role of NO in partitioning HO and because of the large variation in the concentration of NO between remote oceanic areas and continental areas, an increase in O3 by a factor of 2 has been estimated to increase OH by perhaps 10% over ocean areas and by probably more than 10% over the continents (Thompson et al. 1989). These changes might, of course, feed back on the concentration perturbation of O3. 

Upper Troposphere The measurements of HOx in the upper troposphere over the ocean correspond to the simplest reactimi system with the lowest VOCs concentrations. The measurements of this atmospheric domain have been made by many missions of the United States NASA during the latter half of 1990s-2000s, and comparisons with models have been made (Stone et al. 2012). From these investigations, the primary source of HOx in the upper troposphere under less than 100 ppmv of H2O at the altitude of higher than 8 km, it has been analyzed that in addition to the process. 

Blake, N.J., D.R. Blake, A.L. Swanson, E. Atlas, F. Flocke, and F.S. Rowland (2003b), Latitudinal, vertical, and seasonal variations of C1-C4 alkyl nitrates in the troposphere over the Pacific Ocean during PEM-Tropics A and B Oceanic and continental sources, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8242,doi 10.1029/2001JD001444. 

Fig. 11-24 Carbon-14 in the troposphere and the ocean surface water 1962-1981. values for ocean surface water during this period range from 0-15% with no trend over time. (Modified with permission from R. Nydal and K. Lovseth (1983). Tracing bomb in the atmosphere. /. Geophys. Res. 88, 3621-3642, American Geophysical Union.)...

Nakazawa, T., Murayama, S., Miyashita, K., Aoki, S. and Tanaka, M. (1992). Longitudinally different variations of lower tropospheric carbon dioxide concentrations over the North Pacific Ocean, Tellus, Ser. B, 44,161-172. 

The warming climate is likely to induce changes in the hydrological cycle that will lead to further climate change. Increased heating should increase the rate of evaporation and, hence, the amount of water vapor, which is a GHG. The IPCC s Fourth Assessment Report, published in 2007, finds that the average atmospheric water vapor content has increased since at least the 1980s over land and ocean as well as in the upper troposphere. ... 

DeLorey DC, Cronn DR, Farmer JC. 1988. Tropospheric latitudinal distributions of CFCK CFCh, N2 0, CH3CC 3, and CCH over the remote Pacific Ocean. Atmos. Environ 22 1481-1494. 

Kim, J. H., and M. J. Newchurch, Climatology and Trends of Tropospheric Ozone over the Eastern Pacific Ocean The Influences of Biomass Burning and Tropospheric Dynamics, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 3723-3726 (1996). 

In addition, there is an obseived correlation between total column ozone and the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in the tropical troposphere, with decreases in total ozone in middle and sometimes polar latitudes following the ENSO by several months the period associated with the ENSO is 43 months (Zerefos et al., 1992). While the association between the ENSO and ozone is not well understood, it has been proposed that the warming of the troposphere in the tropics over the Pacific Ocean causes increases in the upper troposphere air temperatures and tropopause height and an upwelling in the lower stratosphere. If sufficiently large, this could have more widespread impact than just in the tropics (e.g., see Zerefos et al., 1992 and Kalicharran et al., 1993). 

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate released into air can be carried for long distances in the troposphere and it has been detected over the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans wash-out by rain appears to be a significant removal process (Atlas Giam, 1981 Giam etal., 1984 WHO, 1992). 

Tropospheric chemistry models have to take into account a significant number of chemical reactions required to simulate correctly tropospheric chemistry. In the global background marine troposphere, it seems reasonable to consider a simplified chemistry scheme based on O3/ NOx/ CH, and CO photochemical reactions. However, natural emissions of organic compounds from oceans (mainly alkenes and dimethyl sulphide-DMS) might significantly affect the marine boundary layer chemistry and in particular OH concentrations. Over continental areas both under clean and polluted conditions,... 

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