Topographical effects

On the other hand, the sensitivity of STM to electronic structure can lead to undesired artifacts when the surface is composed of regions of varying conductivity. For example, an area of lower conductivity will be represented as a dip in the image. If the surface is not well known, separating topographic effects from electronic effects can be difficult. 

Mean wind speed and direction The air flow is assumed to be horizontal, but the flow may be tilted (to yield a vertical component) due to local topographic effects. The mean wind speed determines the convection of the stack emissions. 

Flat polished specimens are necessary, as X-rays will not be detected from regions of the specimen which are not in line-of-sight of the detector. Rough specimens would therefore give topographical effects which might be misinterpreted as variations in composition. 

Within about 500 km of coastal areas, the chloride content of precipitation is strongly related to the proximity of the shoreline. The ocean-derived chloride in the precipitation may commonly vary from 10 to 20 mg/L at the coast to less than 1 mg/L at a distance of 200 km from the coast. Precise amounts are related closely to climatological factors such as prevailing winds and total precipitation. Local vegetation cover and topographic effects may also be important, particularly in controlling dry fallout of sea-spray particles within a few kilimeters of the coast. 

The Band Ratio enhancement technique can be used to remove the brightness variation caused by topographic effects in a region. (Gad et al. 2005 NASA Remote sensing tutorial by Dr. Nicholas Short)... 

The most simple reason for a contrast between different atom species at the surface is a true topographic effect, i.e., the difference in atom size and/or difference in atomic position (height). An example is the surface alloy formed if Pb is deposited in submonolayer amount on a Cu(lll) surface (Fig. 2). Here, we can easily identify the Pb atoms which substitute single Cu atoms in the first layer [28]. 

Topography also influences local winds, precipitation, and temperature. For example, valley winds can form as air along a hillside is warmed during the day and thus rises, drawing air up the valley, or as air cools at night and thus flows downhill toward the valley bottom (Fig. 4-22b). In another topographic effect, the windward side of a mountain range often receives extra... 

Cao HQ et al (2010) The topographical effect of electrospun nanofibrous scaffolds on the in vivo and in vitro foreign body reaction. J Biomed Mater Res A 93A(3) 11511159... 

Climate affects (1) the array of plant species, (2) the quantity of plant material produced, and (3) the intensity of soil microbial activity. Vegetation and topographic effects are difficult to separate from climatic effects. Rather, all of the factors become integrated as a soil forms and account for the generalization that forest and grassland soils usually exceed other well-aerated soils in humus content, whereas desert and semidesert soils have very little SOM. 

Such an approach neglects secondary topographic effects, but these can be avoided in the sample set by restricting sampling to locations high in the local topography. The approach therefore cannot cope, for example, with local effects such as the occurrence of peats or different SOC dynamics around watercourses, but neither can any other current approach. 

In an early study of oceanic bottom water flow within the C-C F.Z., Johnson (1972) deployed free-fall bottom current meters in an area north of the Clipperton Fracture Zone where substantial sediment erosion was known to occur. The limited data showed that the bottom currents were generally slow (<10 cm see ) but fluctuated markedly due to a strong semi-diurnal tidal component. It was also established that the currents flowed mainly to the east with minor variations due to topographic effects. In addition, data from a 14-day record of bottom current measurements taken at 210 m above the sea floor revealed an averge bottom water flow of 2.0 cm sec in an ENE direction with peak velocities of up to 16.5 cm sec at semidiurnal periods. These data showed that peak velocities of bottom water transport were strong enough to erode and transport sediment in the area (Amos et al. 1977). 

Topographic effect This attribute is taken into consideration for buildings that are located at hiUs having a significant slope. 

Soft story Apparent quality Heavy overhang Floor level/building adjacency Same Same Different Different Vprtii nl Plan irregularity/ torsion Short column Topographic effect... 

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