THIN FILM GROWTH PROCESSES

The requirements of thin-film ferroelectrics are stoichiometry, phase formation, crystallization, and microstmctural development for the various device appHcations. As of this writing multimagnetron sputtering (MMS) (56), multiion beam-reactive sputter (MIBERS) deposition (57), uv-excimer laser ablation (58), and electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) plasma-assisted growth (59) are the latest ferroelectric thin-film growth processes to satisfy the requirements. 

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), also called electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA), is a useful measure to know chemical environment of elements in material surface. The strength of XPS is its ability to identify different chemical states. This function is useful in physics, chemistry and material science, such as oxidation/corrosion products, adsorbed species or thin-film growth processes. Analysis of insulators is possible, and XPS is also capable of semiquan-titative analysis. 

These instruments can address both fundamental and applied research problems. Whether one is trying to solve a device development riddle, understand the complicated vapor-phase thin-film growth process, or delve into the fundamental issues of the nature of superconductivity there is a configuration that can suit that problem. Materials science or physics, whatever the issue, structure or property or their relationship to each other, the SPM capabilities, high resolution, and ability to simultaneously measure structure and property make these instruments valuable additions to the electron microscope family. 

Figure 10.3 Events in atypical vapor-phase thin film growth process.

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